Psychology Test 1 (Chp 1-4)

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structuralism

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an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind

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functionalism

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a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable us to adapt, survive and flourish

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behaviorism

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the view of psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studied behavior without reference

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humanistic psychology

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historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individuals potential for personal growth

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cognitive neuroscience

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the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

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psychology

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the science of behavior or mental processes

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nature-nurture issue

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the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.

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basic research

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pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

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applied research

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scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

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counseling psychology

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a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living

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clinical psychology

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a branch of psychology that studies, assesses and treats people with psychological disorders

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psychiatry

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a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practice by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy

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levels of analysis

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the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

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biopsychosocial approach

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an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

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SQ3R

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study method incorporates these principles: survey, question, reqd, rehearse, review

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natural selection

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the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

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hindsight bias

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the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

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critical thinking

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thinking that does not blindly accept arugments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses situations.

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theory

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an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

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hypothesis

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a testable prediction often implied by a theory

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operational definition

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a statement of the procedures used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

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replication

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repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

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case study

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an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

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survey

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a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative random sample of the group

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population

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all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

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random sample

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a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

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naturalistic observation

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observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

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correlation

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a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

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correlation coefficient

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a statistical index of the relationship between two things

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scatter plots

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a graphed cluster of dots, each represents two variables

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illusory correlation

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the perception of a relationship where none exists

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experiment

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a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

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random assignment

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assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing the existing differences between those assigned to the different groups

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double-blind procedure

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an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether participants have received the treatment or placebo

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placebo effect

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experimental results caused by expectations alone

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experimental group

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in an experiment the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

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control group

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in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrast with experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

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independent variable

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the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

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dependent variable

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the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

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mode

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the most frequently occurring scores in a distribution

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mean

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the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then divining by the number of scores

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median

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the middle score in a distribution

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range

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the difference between the high and lowest scores in distribution

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standard deviation

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a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

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normal curve

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a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data

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statical significance

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a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

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culture

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the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

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neuron

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a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

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sensory neurons

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neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

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motor neurons

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neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

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interneurons

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neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between sensory inputs and motor outputs

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dendrite

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the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

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axon

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the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles and glands

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myelin sheath

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a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one mode to the next

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action potential

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a neural impulse; a brief electrical change that travels down an axon

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threshold

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the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

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synapse

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the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

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neurotransmitters

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chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

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reuptake

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a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

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endorphins

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"morphine within"- natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

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nervous system

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the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

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central nervous system

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the brain and spinal cord

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peripheral nervous system

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the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

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nerves

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bundled axons that form neural cabled connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

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somatic nervous system

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the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

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autonomic nervous system

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the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. It's sympathetic division arouses, its parasympathetic division calms.

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sympathetic nervous system

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the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

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parasympathetic nervous system

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the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

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reflex

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a simple,m automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as a knee-jerk response

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endocrine system

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the body's slow chemical communication system, a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

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hormones

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chemical messengers that are manufactures by the endocrine glands, travels through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

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adrenal glands

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a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secret hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress

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pituitary gland

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the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

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lesion

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tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.

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electroencephalogram (EEG)

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an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

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PET (positron emission tomography)

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a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain is performing a given task

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MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

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a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.

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fMRI (functional MRI)

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a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.

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brainstem

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the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enter the brain

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medulla

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the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

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reticular formation

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a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

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thalamus

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the brain;s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

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cerebellum

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the little brain at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

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limbic system

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neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

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amygdala

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two lima-sized neural clusters in the limbic system linked to emotion

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hypothalamus

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a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland and is linked to emotion and reward

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cerebral cortex

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the intricate fabric of interconnected neural elles covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

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glial cells (glia)

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cells in the nervous system that support, nourish and protect neurons

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frontal lobes

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portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

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parietal lobes

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portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and towards the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

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temporal lobes

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portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

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occipital lobes

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portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from visual fields

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motor cortex

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an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

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sensory cortex

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area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

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association areas

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areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking and speaking

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plasticity

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the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by buildings new pathways based on experience

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neurogenesis

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the formation of new neurons

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corpus callosum

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the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

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split brain

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a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them

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biological psychology

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a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior.

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consciousness

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our awareness of ourselves and the environment

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cognitive neuroscience

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the interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with cognition

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dual processing

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the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

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selective attention

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the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

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inattentional blindness

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failing to see visible objects when oyr attention is directed elsewhere

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change blindness

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failing to notice changes in the environment

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circadian rhythm

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the biological clock; regular body rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

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REM sleep

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rapid eye movement sleep, a reoccurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur

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alpha waves

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the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

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sleep

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periodic, natural, irreversible loss of consciousness- as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

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hallucinations

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false sensory experiments, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

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delta waves

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the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

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insomnia

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recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

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narcolepsy

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a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times

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sleep apnea

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a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

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night terrors

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a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

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dream

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a sequence of images, emotions nad thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dream's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.

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manifest content

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according to Freud, the remembered storyline of a dream

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latent content

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according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream

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REM rebound

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the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

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hypnosis

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a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts or behaviors will spontaneously occur

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posthypnotic suggestion

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a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

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dissociation

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a split in consciousness, in which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

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psychoactive drug

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a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

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tolerance

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the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user ti take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

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withdrawal

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the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

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physical dependence

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a psychological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued

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psychological dependence

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a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions

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addiction

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compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

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depressants

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drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

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barbiturates

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drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment

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opiates

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opium and its derivatives such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

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stimulants

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drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

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amphetamines

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drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

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methamphetamine

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a powerfully addictive drugs that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baselines dopamine levels

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Ecstasy (MDMA)

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a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition

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hallucinogens

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psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

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LSD

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a powerful hallucinogen drug; also known as acid

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THC

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the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects including mild hallucinations

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near-death experience

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an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death; often similar to drug induced hallucinations