Psychology Subject Test

Front 1

Franz Gall

Back 1

- One of the earliest theories that behavior, intellect, and personality are linked to brain anatomy.
-Doctrine of phrenology

Front 2

Doctrine of phrenology

Back 2

1) Idea that if a trait is well developed, then the part of the brain responsible for the trait would expand.
2) This would cause a bulge on the skull in that area of brain.
3) Quickly proved false.
4) Impetus for work of Pierre Flourens

Front 3

Pierre Flourens

Back 3

1) First to study functions of major sections of the brain.
2) Studied brain through extirpation (aka ablation).
3) Most work on pigeons.
4) Asserted that brain has specific parts for specific functions. Removal of one part weakens the whole brain.

Front 4

Extirpation (aka ablation)

Back 4

Various parts of the brain are removed surgically, and behavioral consequences are observed.

Front 5

William James

Back 5

1) Views formed functionalism
2) believed in studying how the mind functioned in adapting to the environment
3) Theory on link between physiology and emotional experience.*

Front 6

Functionalism

Back 6

how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments.

Front 7

John Dewey

Back 7

1) 1896 article seen as inception of functionalism
2) article criticized the reflex arc which breaks down the process of reacting to stimulus into discrete parts.
3) believed in studying organism as a whole as it functioned to adapt to the environment.

Front 8

Paul Broca

Back 8

1) Examined behavioral deficits of people with brain damage.
2) Demonstrated that specific functional impairments could be linked to specific brain lesions.
3) Broca's area- discovered man couldn't talk because of damage to left hemisphere

Front 9

Phineas Gage

Back 9

1) Iron rod went through front of skull
2) Minor physical impairments
3) Became unpredictable, profane, and intolerant.
4) Gave us insight on fxn of preftrontal cortex.*

Front 10

Johannes Muller

Back 10

1) Identified the law of specific nerve energies.

Front 11

Law of specific nerve energies

Back 11

1) States that each nerve is excited by only one kind of energy (i.e. light, or air vibrations).
2) Brain interprets any stimulation of that nerve as being that kind of energy.
3) the difference between seeing and hearing, between hearing and touch, and so on - are not caused by differences in the stimuli themselves but by the different nervous structures that these stimuli excite.

Front 12

Hermann von Helmholtz*

Back 12

1) First to measure speed of nerve impulse.
2) Measured speed of impulse in terms of reaction.
3) Credited with transition of psychology into field of natural sciences.

Front 13

Sir Charles Sherrington*

Back 13

1) First inferred the existence of synapses.
2) Thought synaptic transmission was an electrical process, but we now know it's primarily a chemical process.

Front 14

3 types of nerve cells

Back 14

1) Sensory neurons
2) motor neurons
3) interneurons

Front 15

Sensory neurons (afferent neurons)

Back 15

Transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain.

Front 16

Motor neurons (efferent neurons)

Back 16

transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles.

Front 17

Interneurons

Back 17

1) Found between other neurons and are the most numerous of the 3 types of neurons.
2) Mainly located in brain and spinal cord
3) linked to reflexive behavior.

Front 18

Reflex arcs

Back 18

Neural circuits that control reflexive behavior.

Front 19

Reflexes

Back 19

Control behavior that is crucial to survival.

Front 20

Process for nerve cell signaling

Back 20

Ex. Step on a nail
1) sensory neurons transmit pain signal to spinal cord.
2) Sensory neurons connect with interneurons in spinal cord.
3) Interneurons transmit info to motor neurons
4) Motor neurons tell foot to move

Note: original signal still makes it to the brain but by that time your motor neurons have already told your foot to move.

Front 21

Two parts of the nervous system

Back 21

1) Central nervous system
2) Peripheral nervous system

Front 22

CNS

Back 22

1) Brain and spinal cord

Front 23

PNS

Back 23

1) Consists of nerve tissue and fibers outside of the brain and spinal cord
2) Connects the CNS to the rest of the body
3) Subdivided in somatic and autonomic nervous systems

Front 24

Somatic nervous system

Back 24

1) Consists of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin and muscles.

Front 25

Afferent fibers

Back 25

Are used by sensory neurons to transmit information.

Note: Sensory impulses Ascend to brain.

Front 26

Efferent fibers

Back 26

Are used by motor neurons to transmit information.

Note: motor impulses Exit the brain.

Front 27

Autonomic nervous system

Back 27

1) Regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, temperature and glandular secretions.
2) Manages involuntary muscles associated with internal organs and glands.
3) Regulates automatic functions (independent of conscious control)

Front 28

Two subdivisions of ANS

Back 28

1) Sympathetic nervous system
2) Parasympathetic nervous system

Front 29

Sympathetic nervous system

Back 29

1) Fight or flight
2) Increases in heart rate, blood-sugar level, and respiration.
3) Pupils dilate
4) Releases adrenaline in blood system

Front 30

Parasympathetic nervous system

Back 30

1) Rest and digestion

Front 31

Acetylcholine

Back 31

Neurotransmitter responsible for parasympathetic responses.

Front 32

Subdivisions of the brain

Back 32

1) Hindbrain
2) Midbrain
3) Forebrain

Front 33

Hindbrain

Back 33

1) Located where the brain meets the spinal cord
2) Primary functions: balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal for survival.

Front 34

Midbrain

Back 34

1) Just about the hindbrain
2) Manages sensorimotor reflexes that promote survival.
3) Receives sensory and motor information

Front 35

Forebrain

Back 35

1) Above midbrain
2) Assciated with complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes.
3) Associated with emotion and memory.
4) Has greatest influence on human behavior.

Front 36

Brainstem

Back 36

1) Formed by the hindbrain and midbrain.
2) First area of brain to form.
3) Most primitive region of brain.

Front 37

Limbic system

Back 37

1) A group of neural structures mainly associated with learning and memory.
2) Aggression, fear, pleasure, and pain associated w/ system.
3) Formed after Brainstem

Front 38

Cerebral Cortex

Back 38

1) Developed most recently
2) Associated with language, problem solving, impulse control, longterm planning, etc.

Front 39

Phelogeny*

Back 39

Term for evolutionary development in humans.

Front 40

Medulla Oblongata

Back 40

Lower brain structure responsible for regulating vital functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.

Front 41

Pons

Back 41

1) Lies above medulla
2) Contains sensory and motor tracts between the cortex and medulla.

Front 42

Cerebellum

Back 42

1) Helps maintain posture and balance and coordinates body movements.
2) Damage causes slurred speech, clumsiness, and loss of balance.

Front 43

Reticular formation

Back 43

1) Composed of intricate network of nerve fibers.
2) 3 A's: Primarily regulates arousal, alertness, and attention (sleeping and waking).
3) Anesthesia affects reticular formation.

Front 44

Superior colliculus

Back 44

Receives visual sensory input (associated with seeing)

Front 45

Inferior colliculus

Back 45

1) Receives sensory information from auditory system.
2) Has a role in reflexive reactions to sudden noises.

Front 46

Thalamus

Back 46

1) Relay station for incoming sensory information, including all senses except for smell.
2) Receives info -> sorts info -> transmits to appropriate region of cerebral cortex
3) It's a sensory "way-station"

Front 47

Study

Back 47

figure 2: pg. 131
Table on pg. 133

Front 48

Hypothalamus

Back 48

1) Serves homeostatic functions.
2) Key player in:
-emotional experience during high arousal states
-aggressing behavior
-sexual behavior
3) Receptors regulate metabolism, temperature, and water balance.
4) Signals body when any of those are out of balance.

Front 49

Homeostatic fxns

Back 49

1) self-regulatory processes that maintain equilibrium

Front 50

Osmoregulation

Back 50

The maintenance of water balance in the body

Front 51

Osmoreceptors

Back 51

Receptors in the hypothalamus that are responsible for osmoregulation.

Front 52

Walter canon

Back 52

Developed the conceptualization of homeostatis

Front 53

Drive behaviors

Back 53

1) Hunger, thirst, and sexual behaviors
2) Hypothalamus is important for these.

Front 54

Subdivisions of hypothalamus

Back 54

1) Lateral hypothalamus
2) Ventromedial hypothalamus
3) Anterior hypothalamus

Front 55

Lateral hypothalamus (LH)

Back 55

1) Hunger center- receptors detect hunger & thirst
2) Aphagia
-LH= lacking hunger
2) Plays a role in rage and fighting behaviors

Front 56

Aphagia

Back 56

Refusal to eat or drink due to destroyed LH.

Front 57

Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)

Back 57

1) Satiety center- tells you when you've had enough to eat.
-hyperphagia

Front 58

Hyperphagia

Back 58

Excessive eating due to malfunctioning VMH
VH= very hungry

Front 59

Fight or flight responses

Back 59

1) Hypothalamus manages this response.

2) Experiments with removing hypothalamus in cats showed without it they lack ability to defend themselves against threats to survival.
3) W/o hypothalamus and cerebral cortex cats lack ability to coordinate and organize emotional responses.

Front 60

Anterior hypothalamus

Back 60

1) Stimulation of this area = increase in aggressive sexual behavior
2) Damage to this area = permanent inhibition of sexual behavior.

Front 61

4 F's of hypothalamus

Back 61

1) Feeding
2) Fighting
3) Fleeing
4) F*cking

Front 62

Hypothalamus subdivision overview

Back 62

LH : Hunger center- lesions lead to aphagia (Lacking Hunger)

VH: Satiety center- lesions lead to hyperphagia (Very Hungry)

AH: Sexual activity- lesions inhibit sexual activity (Asexual)

Front 63

Basal ganglia

Back 63

1) Coordinates muscle movements
2) Receives info from cortex and relays it to the brain and spinal cord.

Front 64

Extrapyramidal motor system

Back 64

1) Gathers info about body position (thru places like basal ganglia) and carries it to brain and spinal cord.
2) Helps make our movements smooth and posture steady.

Front 65

Parkinson's disease

Back 65

1) Associated with Basal ganglia
2) Jerky movements and uncontrollable resting tremors

Front 66

Schizophrenia

Back 66

1)Basal ganglia may also play a role in this disorder
2) Enlarged ventricles have been linked to schizophrenic symptoms: social withdrawal, flat affect, and catatonic states.

Front 67

Ventricles

Back 67

Fluid-filled cavities in middle of brain that link up with the spinal canal that runs down middle of spine.

Front 68

Cerebrospinal fluid

Back 68

Fluid that fills ventricles and spinal canal

Front 69

Limbic system

Back 69

1) Group of interconnected structures looping around central portion of brain.
2) Primarily associated with emotion and memory

Front 70

Primary components of limbic system

Back 70

1) Septum
2) Amygdala
3) Hippocampus

Front 71

Septum (Septal area)

Back 71

1) one of primary pleasure centers of brain.
2) Inhibits aggression

Front 72

James Olds & Peter Milner

Back 72

1) Discovered that stimulation to septal area is reported to be intensely pleasurable and sexually arousing.
2) Rats will choose stimulation to septal area over food (even past 24 hours w/o food)

Front 73

Septal rage

Back 73

Vicious aggressive behavior due to damage to septal area.

Front 74

Amygdala

Back 74

1) Plays role in aggressive and defensive behaviors
2) Damage to amygdala: aggression and fear reduced.
3) Lesions: docility and hypersexual states

Front 75

Heinrick Cluver & Paul Bucy

Back 75

Studies linked amygdala to aggressive and defensive behaviors in monkeys.

Kluver-Bucy syndrome: changes in animals that resulted from bilateral removal of amygdala.

Front 76

Hippocampus

Back 76

1) Learning and memory
2) Discovered link to memory through patient H.M.

Front 77

Patient H.M.

Back 77

1) Removed part of temporal lobes including hippocampus and amygdala to stop seizures.
2) suffered anterograde amnesia.

Front 78

Anterograde amnesia

Back 78

Inability to form new long term memories.

Front 79

Retrograde amnesia

Back 79

Memory loss of past events

Front 80

Brenda Milner

Back 80

studied severe anterograde amnesia in patient H.M.

Front 81

Cerebral cortex/ Neo cortex

Back 81

Outer surface of brain

Front 82

Concolutions

Back 82

1) Folds in the cortex
2) Provide increased cellular mass

Front 83

Four lobes of cerebral cortex

Back 83

1) Frontal lobe
2) Parietal lobe
3) Occipital lobe
4) Temporal lobe

Front 84

Frontal lobe

Back 84

1) Comprised of:
-Prefrontal lobes: Executive functioning
-Motor cortex
-Broca's area

Front 85

Prefrontal lobe

Back 85

1) Executive functioning- supervises and directs the operations of other brain regions.
2) Supervises processes associated with perception, memory, impulse control, and long-term planning.

Front 86

Prefrontal cortex

Back 86

governs and integrates numerous cognitive and behavioral processes.

Ex. for memory, it reminds you that you have something to remember but it doesn't store the memory.

Front 87

Association area

Back 87

1) An area that combines input from diverse brain regions.
-Ex. prefrontal cortex.
2) Humans have more area devoted to association areas than projection areas.

Front 88

Projection areas

Back 88

Receive incoming sensory information and send out motor-impulse commands.

Ex. visual cortex & motor cortex

Front 89

Prefrontal lobotomies

Back 89

1) Were used to treat schizophrenia
2) Disconnect frontal lobe from limbic system and hypothalamus.

Front 90

Damage to prefrontal cortex

Back 90

1) Impairs supervisory functions
2) Impulsive, less control of behavior, depressed

Front 91

Motor cortex

Back 91

1) Sends out motor commands to the muscles
2) Initiates voluntary movements by sending neural impulses down spinal cord toward muscles.
3) Neurons arranged according to body parts which they are associated.
4) Top is associated with toes--> moves down through body to face.
5) Muscles that require more control take up more space on motor cortex.

Front 92

Broca's area

Back 92

1) Important for speech production
2) Usually found in dominant left hemisphere.

Front 93

Parietal lobe

Back 93

1) Contains somatosensory cortex
2) Central region associated with spatial processing and manipulation.

Front 94

Somatosensory cortex

Back 94

1) Projection area that is destination for all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.
2) Closely related to motor cortex.

Front 95

Sensorimotor cortex

Back 95

Term for both motor and somatosensory cortices.

Front 96

Occipital lobes

Back 96

1) contains visual/striate cortex

Front 97

Visual cortex/ Striate cortex

Back 97

1) Receives visual input from the retina
2) Has striped under microscope
3) David Hubel & Torsten Wiesel advanced research on visual cortex.

Front 98

Temporal lobes

Back 98

1) Contains auditory cortex & Wernike's area.
2) Important for memory processing, emotional control, and language.

Front 99

Wernike's area

Back 99

1) Language reception and comprehension.
2) Comprehension for spoken and written language
3) Receives input from auditory and visual cortices.

Front 100

Contralaterally

Back 100

1) In most people, the brain communicates with the opposite side of the body.

Ex. Motor neurons

Front 101

Ipsilaterally

Back 101

1) In some cases, cerebral hemispheres communicate with same side of body.

Ex. Smell

Front 102

Dominant hemisphere

Back 102

1)Generally located opposite to the hand used for writing (Left hemisphere for most people).
2) Left hemisphere dominant for ~97% of people
3) Generally analytic in function: language, logic, and math skills located here.

Front 103

Non-dominant hemisphere

Back 103

1) Sensitive to emotional tone of spoken language
2) Associated with intuition, creativity, music and spatial processing.

Front 104

Roger Sperry & Michael Gazzaniga

Back 104

1) Studied seffects of severing corpus callosum in epileptic patients.
2) Discovered it allows sharing of information between hemispheres.
3) Studied split-brain patients**

Front 105

Corpus callosum

Back 105

1) large connection of fibers connecting the left and right hemispheres.
2) Allows for communication between the two hemispheres.

Front 106

4 parts of neurons

Back 106

1) Cell body (soma)
2) dendrites
3) Axon
4) Terminal buttons

Neuron is able to transform chemical energy to electrical energy and vice versa.

Front 107

Cell body

Back 107

1)Contains the nucleus of the cell
2) Neurons energy center

Front 108

Dendrites

Back 108

1)Branch out from cell body to receive incoming information from other neurons via postsynaptic receptors.
2) External stimulation of dendrites can lead a neuron to "fire", or generate an electrical impulse.

Front 109

Terminal buttons

Back 109

1) End of axon that branches out.
2) Buttons contain vesicles/sacs filled with neurotransmitters.

Front 110

Neurotransmitters

Back 110

1) Chemical substances that the vesicles release whenever the neuron fires .
2) Allows NT's to flow into tiny space separating terminal buttons of one neuron from the dendrites of adjacent neurons (the synapse).

Front 111

Synapse

Back 111

1) Tiny gap between neurons.
2) Info passing between neurons via NT's must cross the synapse.

Front 112

Glial cells

Back 112

1) Specialized non neural cells.
2) Most important fxn is to insulate axons by enclosing them in a myelin sheath.

Front 113

Axons

Back 113

1) Most axons are myelinated
2) Communication avenue for a cell.

Front 114

Myelin sheath

Back 114

1) Insulate nerve fibers from one another.
2) Important role in conduction velocity or speed of an impulse.
3) Divided into myelinated and unmyelinated areas along the axon. (Allows for saltatory conduction)

Front 115

Dendrites

Back 115

1) Not myelinated.
2) Receptors of information.
3) Can regenerate.

Front 116

Electrical process

Back 116

Neural conduction WITHIN the neuron, including among the dendrites, cell body and axon.

Front 117

Chemical process

Back 117

Neural transmission BETWEEN neurons that always occurs in the synapse.

Front 118

Resting potential

Back 118

1) A slight electrical charge (negative charge) stored inside the neuron's cell membrane.
2) The charge is waiting to be transformed into a nerve impulse.
3) Present when neuron is at rest.

Front 119

Cell membrane

Back 119

1) Thin layer of fatty molecules that separates the inside of the neuron from the outside.
2) Is semipermeable- only blocks some substances from passing.
3) plays important role in the resting potential (sometimes called membrane potential)

Front 120

Ions

Back 120

1) Small electrically charged particles.
2) Smaller ions are able to pass through the cell membrane but larger ones are not.
3) Can have positive or negative charge

Front 121

Resting state of neuron

Back 121

When charged ions are separated this is the resting state of the neuron.

Front 122

Polarized neuron

Back 122

1) When the charge outside of a neuron is more positive (more positively charged ions) than the inside of the neuron.
2) Results in a net negative charge inside the neuron.

Front 123

Potassium ions

Back 123

1) Positively charged ion
2) located INSIDE the cell (PI)
3) Move from inside the cell membrane to outside.

Front 124

Sodium Ions

Back 124

1) Positively charged ion
2) Located OUTSIDE of the cell (SO)
3) Move from outside the cell membrane to inside.

Front 125

Sodium-potassium pump

Back 125

Maintains the resting potential of neuron (slight negative charge inside cell membrane) by pumping positively charged sodium ions back outside and keeping the potassium ions inside the cell.

Front 126

Four stages of a firing neuron

Back 126

1) Resting potential
2) Depolarization
3) Action potential spike
4) Hyperpolarization

Whole process takes a fraction of a second

Front 127

Stage 1: Resting potential

Back 127

1) When cell membrane is at its resting potential it is polarized.
2) Polarization is about -70 millivolts

Front 128

Stage 2: Depolarization

Back 128

1) Depolarization occurs when a stimulus has been significant enough to cause the membrane's potential to increase to a threshold potential (-50mV)
2) This is the actual firing of the neuron
3) After reaching threshold the membrane allows positively charged ions (sodium) to rush into the cell making it positively charged.

Front 129

Stage 3 : Action potential spike

Back 129

1) Action potential spike- once membrane reaches threshold it produces a rapid electrical pulse
2) pulse occurs when cell membrane's charge suddenly becomes positive (depolarization) for a fraction of a second.
3) Cell then becomes REPOLARIZED by letting potassium rush back outside of membrane leaving it negatively charged.

Front 130

Stage 4: Hyperpolarization

Back 130

1) Membrane becomes hyperpolarized when it overshoots its original negative charge from resting potential.
2) Membrane becomes resistant to inflow of positively charged sodium ions.
3) Internal voltage gradually returns to original resting potential.

Front 131

Refractory period

Back 131

1) Period following the firing of a neuron just before the neuron is able to fire again.
2) Divided into 2 stages

Front 132

Absolute refractory period

Back 132

1) The period corresponding to the depolarization (inrush of sodium ions).
2) This is the achievement of the action potential.
3) Neuron is completely unresponsive to additional stimulation.

Front 133

Relative refractory period

Back 133

1) Begins once neuron has achieved action potential spike.
2) Corresponds to repolarization (when potassium ions rush out).
3) During this time neuron will fire in response to strong stimulus.

Front 134

All or nothing law

Back 134

1) Law governs action potential
2) When depolarization reaches the critical threshold (-50mV) the neuron is going to fire, each and every time.
3) Once action potential begins, it always peaks to about +35 mV regardless of strength of stimuli.

Front 135

Axon hillock

Back 135

1) Small elevation on the neuron where the axon meets the cell body.
2) This is where the action potential originates.
3) Also where graded potential in the cell body is converted into all-or-nothing potential of the axon.

Front 136

Myelin

Back 136

1) Insulates the axon and speeds up conduction.

Front 137

Saltatory conduction

Back 137

The efficient conduction along the myelinated axon.

Front 138

Nodes of Ranvier

Back 138

1) The gaps of space along the axon where it is unmyelinated.
2) Depolarization occurs at the nodes.
3) The action potential skips from node to node (which is faster than traveling sequentially down axon)
4) Action potenital is regenerated at each node, causing it not to lose intensity.

Front 139

Chemical transmission of NT's

Back 139

When action potential reaches terminal buttons it triggers the release of NT's into the synapse.

Front 140

Presynaptic membrane

Back 140

1) The membrane of the terminal button that faces synapse.
2) Contains vesicles that store NT's.

Front 141

Postsynaptic membrane

Back 141

1) Located within the dendrite of an adjacent neuron that has receptors on it.

Front 142

Release of NT's

Back 142

1) When action potential releases NT's, they flood the synapse.
2) 3 things can happen to NT'S:
a) Can attach to receptors on postsynaptic membrane
b) Can remain in synapse where they're destroyed & washed away by biochemical substances.
c) Can be drawn back into receptors of terminal button via reuptake.

Front 143

Binding

Back 143

1) NT's only bind to receptor sites on postsynaptic membrane if receptor sites are constructed to receive them. (Similar to a key and lock)
2) When binding occurs, cells are able to communicate with each other.

Front 144

Elimination of NT's

Back 144

After NT's bind to receptors, they are eliminated from synapse through reuptake or being destroyed.

Front 145

Postsynaptic potential (PSP)

Back 145

1) Tiny electrical charge that is generated once the NT binds to the receptor.
2) This either makes the neuron more or less likely to fire.
3) If few NT's bind the receptors the PSP will be weak/ If more NT's bind PSP will be strong (because it's a graded potential)

Front 146

Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

Back 146

When PSP makes neuron more likely to fire.

Front 147

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

Back 147

When PSP makes neuron less likely to fire.

Front 148

Graded potentials

Back 148

1) Means voltage can vary in intensity.
2) The voltage depends directly on how much the receptor sites are stimulated by NT's (not subject to all-or nothing)
3) As potential spreads out from original site of stimulation it weakens as they travel along dendrite. (unlike action potentials that maintain strength along axon)

Front 149

Eric Kandel

Back 149

1) Studied simple neural networks in aplysia (sea snails).
2) Demonstrated that changes in synaptic transmission underlie changes to behavior.
3) Discovered habituation by stimulating aplysia

Front 150

Habituation

Back 150

Decrease in response to stimulation after repeated presentation.

Front 151

Acetylcholine

Back 151

1) NT found in CNS and PNS
2) In PNS: used to transmit nerve impulses to muscles.
3) In CNS: has been linked to Alzheimer's disease.

Front 152

Alzheimer's disease

Back 152

1) Illness resulting in progressive and incurable memory loss.
2) Associated with acetylcholine in neurons that connect to hippocampus.

Front 153

Catecholines

Back 153

1) Play an important role in the experience of emotions.
2) Epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine are catecholines (these are all monoamines)

Front 154

Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

Back 154

1) Involved in controlling alertness and wakefulness.
2) Is implicated in mood disorders such as depression and mania**
3) Theory: too much causes mania, too little causes depression.

Front 155

Dopamine

Back 155

1) Plays an important role in movement and posture
2) High concentrations normally found in basal ganglia.
3) Imbalances in dopamine transmission play role in schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease.

Front 156

Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia

Back 156

1) Argues that delusions, hallucinations, and agitations associated with schizophrenia arise from too much or an oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain.
2) Evidence seen through: 1) use of amphetamines which enhance action of dopamine and can result in disorders resembling schizophrenia. 2) Antipsychotic meds that reduce sensitivity to dopamine reduce schizophrenic symptoms.
3) This theory is not conclusive.

Front 157

Tardive dyskinesia

Back 157

1) side effects of taking antipsychotic medication for a long period of time.
2) It interferes with dopamine transmission and symptoms resemble motor disturbances seen in Parkinson's disease.

Front 158

Parkinson's disease

Back 158

1) Thought to result from a loss of dopamine-sensitive neurons in the basal ganglia (specifically sunstantia nigra)
2) Disruption to dopamine transmission leades to tremors and jerky motor movements.

Front 159

L-dopa

Back 159

1) Synthetic substance that increases dopamine levels in the brain (able to penetrate BBB)
2) Used to treat Parkinson's disease.
3) Can cause psychotic symptoms as well.

Front 160

Serotonin

Back 160

1) Loosely categorized as monoamine
2) Plays role in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, and arousal.
3) Oversupply = mania; Undersupply = depression

Front 161

Monoamine theory on depression

Back 161

Theory that an undersupply of monoamines serotonin or norepinephrine can cause depression.

Front 162

GABA

Back 162

1) Produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
2) Stabilizes neural activity in brain
3) Causes hyerpolarization in the postsynaptic membrane.

Front 163

Peptides

Back 163

1) Two or more amino acids joined together
2) involved in neurotransmission

Front 164

Neuromodulators ( neuropeptides)

Back 164

1) Their synaptic action involves a more complicated chain of events in the postsynaptic cell than regular NT's.
2) Relatively slow and have a longer effect on postsynaptic cell.

Front 165

Endorphins

Back 165

1) Peptides
2) Natural painkillers produced in the brain.

Front 166

Psychopharmacology

Back 166

Science of how drugs affect behavior

Front 167

Sedative-hypnotic drugs/ depressants

Back 167

1) Slow down functioning of CNS
-Low doses: reduce anxiety
-Medium doses: produce sedation
-High doses: induce anesthesia or coma
2) Include: a) benzodiazepines and b) barbiturates

Front 168

Synergistic

Back 168

1) When combining drugs they have a stronger effect.
2) Depressants are synergistic.

Ex. Alcohol and barbiturates.

Front 169

Benzodiazepines

Back 169

1) Sedative hypnotic
2) enhance GABA
3) Minor tranquilizer (reduce anxiety)

Ex. Valium

Front 170

Barbiturates

Back 170

1) Sedative
2) Enhance GABA
3) Sedative

Front 171

Alcohol

Back 171

1) sedative
2) Abuse can result in memory disturbances such as blackouts.

Front 172

Korsakoff's syndrome

Back 172

1) Caused vitamin deficiency of thiamin(B1) that often arises from malnutrition linked with alcoholism
2) Anterograde amnesia is a major symptom

Front 173

Behavioral stimulants

Back 173

Increase behavioral activity by increasing motor activity or counteracting fatigue

Front 174

Amphetamines

Back 174

1) Speed up CNS in ways that mimic the action of sympathetic nervous system.
2) Thought to stimulate dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin.

Front 175

Antidepressants

Back 175

1) Classified as behavioral stimulants
2) Elevate mood, increase activity and appetite, and improve sleep patterns.
Ex. Tricyclics and MAO inhibitors**

Front 176

Tricyclic antidepressants

Back 176

1) Reduce depression by facilitating the transmission of of norepinephrine or serotonin at the synapse.
2) Block reuptake of monoamines.

Front 177

MAO inhibitors

Back 177

1) Inhibit the action of MAO which normally breaks down and deactivates norepinephrine and serotonin in the synapse.
2) This increases supply of serotonin and norepinephrine.

Front 178

SSRI's

Back 178

1) Inhibit reuptake of serotonin therefore increasing supply of serotonin in synapse.

Ex. Prozac

Front 179

Methylphenidate

Back 179

1) Ritalin
2) Amphetamine used to treat hyperactivity from ADD.
3) Increases alertness and decreases motor activity in hyperactive children.

Front 180

Antipsychotic drugs to treat schizophrenia

Back 180

1) Treat delusional thinking, hallucinations and agitation.
2) Thought to reduce sensitivity to dopamine.
Ex. a) Thorazine, b) chlorpromazine, c) phenothiazine, d) haloperidol

Front 181

Lithium carbonate

Back 181

1) Used to treat bipolar disorder
2) Mood stabilizer that eliminates 70-90% of bipolar symptoms.

Front 182

Bipolar disorder

Back 182

Mood disorder that is characterized by mood swings alternating between manic highs and depressive lows.

Front 183

Narcotics

Back 183

1) Opium, Heroin, and morphine are examples.
2) bind with opiate receptors in brain and mimic the effects of natural pain killers such as endorphins.

Front 184

Psychedelics

Back 184

1) Alter sensory perception and cognitive processes
2) Cannibis, mescaline, psilocybin

Front 185

Endocrine system

Back 185

1) Involved in slow and continuous bodily processes (ex. thyroid hormones stimulate growth)
2) Uses hormones as chemical messengers
3) Acts quickly in flight or flight situations, it produces adrenaline.
4) Regulates sexual arousal and sexual production processes.

Front 186

Pituitary gland

Back 186

1) Master gland of endocrine system
2) Divided into anterior and posterior parts.
3) Anterior part releases hormones that activate endocrine glands.
4) The endocrine gland then releases hormone that signals a specific organ to change its functioning.

Front 187

Primary sex characteristics

Back 187

1) Characteristics present at birth: sex organs or gonads and genitalia
2) Development is influenced by hormones regulated by pituitary gland and hypothalamus

Front 188

Secondary sex characteristics

Back 188

1) Don't appear until puberty
2) breasts, hips, facial hair, deeper voice.

Front 189

Sex chromosomes

Back 189

1) At birth embryo always inherits X chromosome from mother but may be an X or Y from father.
XX = female XY = male

Front 190

Androgens

Back 190

1) Hormones required during critical stages of fetal development in males.
2) Y chromosome initiates production of them.
Ex. Testosterone

Front 191

Androgen-insensitivity syndrome

Back 191

When a fetus with XY chromosomes cannot produce androgens. and therefore follows female development.

Front 192

Gonadotropic hormones (gonadotropins)

Back 192

1) Produced and released by pituitary gland during puberty.
2) Activate increase in production of hormones by testes and ovaries.
-In males: stimulate production of sperm, deepen voice, facial hair.
-In females: stimulate secretion of estrogen, menstrual cycle, development of genetalia

Front 193

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Back 193

1) Secreted by pituitary gland
2) Development of ovarian follicle, which is small protective sphere surrounding egg or ovum

Front 194

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Back 194

1) Associated with ovulation

Front 195

Estrogen

Back 195

1) Produced in ovaries
2) increasing levels are associated with the maturation and release of egg or ovum from the ovary.

Front 196

Progesterone

Back 196

1) Prepares uterus for implantation of fertilized egg.
(Promotes pregnancy)

2) If egg is not fertilized, estrogen and progesterone decrease and menstruation begins.
3) produced in ovaries

Front 197

Neuropsychology

Back 197

The study of function and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain.

Front 198

Ablation (extirpation)

Back 198

1) Surgically induced lesions to study brain-behavior relationship.

Front 199

Stereotaxic instrument

Back 199

1) Device used to located brain areas when electrodes are implanted to make lesions or stimulate nerve cell activity in animals.

Front 200

Wilder Penfield

Back 200

1) First person to stimulated patients cortex with an electrode before surgery.
2) Causes individual neurons to fire, activating the behavioral or perceptual processes of them.
3) Mapped out different areas on the brains surface

Front 201

Electrodes

Back 201

1) Used to stimulate an area of the brain to determine the function of that area.
2) Used on surface of humans brains.
3) Used in deeper areas of animal brains.
4) Can also be used to record activity in the brain.

Front 202

Single-cell recording

Back 202

1) Use electrodes to record electrical activity of single neurons in the brain.
2) Insert ultrasensitive microelectrodes into brain cell.

Front 203

David Hubel & Torsten Wiesel

Back 203

1) Performed single-cell recording in visual cortex

Front 204

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

Back 204

1) noninvasive procedure that records electrical activity along the surface of brain by placing electrodes on surface of skull.

Front 205

regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)

Back 205

1) noninvasive procedure that detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow in certain areas of the brain.
2) When an area of brain is active, the blood flow increases in that area.

Front 206

Positron Emission tomography (PET)

Back 206

Imaging technique that indicates when part of the brain is active.

Front 207

CAT scan

Back 207

Allows you to visualize the density of various structures in the brain.

Front 208

A.R. Luria

Back 208

1) Russian neurologist that studied many neurological disorders

Front 209

Broca's aphasia

Back 209

1) Impairments in producing spoken language.
2) Associated with lesions in Broca's area

Front 210

Wernicke's aphasia

Back 210

1) Associated with damage to wernicke's area.
2) Impairment in understanding language.

Front 211

Anterograde amnesia

Back 211

1) Disturbance in creation of new memories.
2) Can be caused by damage or removal of hippocampus
3) patient H.M.

Front 212

Agnosia

Back 212

1) Affects perceptual recognition

Front 213

Visual agnosia

Back 213

1) Impairment in visual recognition
2) Person can see an object but can't recognize what it is.
3) Cause by damage to association areas near visual cortex.

Front 214

Tactile agnosia

Back 214

Disturbances in tactile (touch) recognition

Front 215

Apraxia

Back 215

1) Impairment in the organization of motor action.
2) Characterized by an inability to execute simple motor response to a verbal command.
3) Difficulty organizing motor actions into a logical sequence.
4) Caused by damage to association areas near motor cortex.

Front 216

Dementias

Back 216

1) Neurological disorders characterized by a loss in intellectual functioning.

Ex. Alzheimer's disease

2) Patients with Huntington's chorea (loss of motor control) and Parkinson's also show signs of dementia.

Front 217

Reticular formation

Back 217

1) Neural structure in brainstem that keeps cortex awake and alert.
2) If disconnected from cortex due to injury, a person would sleep most of the day.

Front 218

Circadian rhythms

Back 218

1) Internally generated rhythms that regulate wake and sleep cycles.
2) Approximates a 24-hour cycle that is somewhat affected by external cues such as night and day.
3) When there is no alternation in light and dark, this cycle may be longer or shorter than 24 hours

Front 219

EEG to study sleep

Back 219

1) Record electrical activity in brain during sleep.

Front 220

4 characteristics of EEG patters that correspond with different stages of wake and sleep (BAT-D)

Back 220

1) Beta
2) Alpha
3) Theta
4) Delta

Front 221

Beta waves

Back 221

1) Brain activity when were awake
2) High frequency and occur when were alert and attending to some mental task that requires concentration
3) Occur when neurons are randomly firing

Front 222

Alpha waves

Back 222

1) Occur when we are awake but relaxing with eyes closed.
2) More synchronized and slower than beta waves

Front 223

Sleep stage 1

Back 223

1) Starts as soon as you doze off
2) Detected by sleep spindles- short bursts of alpha waves
3) Slower, irregular, and jagged wave forms.

Front 224

Sleep stage 2

Back 224

1) Theta waves occur and become progressively slower
2) "K complexes" occur

Front 225

Sleep stage 3

Back 225

1) Activity grows slower with few sleep waves per second.
2) Delta waves- low frequency, high voltage waves (Delta = deep sleep)

Front 226

Sleep stage 4

Back 226

1) Deepest sleep stage, difficult to wake people.
2) Delta wave reaches slowest state and spindles are at their steepest.

Front 227

REM sleep (paradoxical sleep)

Back 227

1) Fifth stage of sleep during which we have most dreams.
2) Spend most time in this stage of sleep
3) EEG waves look like Beta waves (desynchronized), but muscle tone remains relaxed.
4) Eyes are constantly moving

Front 228

REM rebound

Back 228

1) When people of deprived of REM sleep they are irritable and have trouble concentrating next day.
2) Next time they sleep they conpensate for lost REM sleep by spending more time in REM stage

Front 229

Sleep disturbances

Back 229

Sleepwalking, sleeptalking, and night terrors occur during non-REM sleep

Front 230

Insomnia

Back 230

1) Disturbance affecting the ability to fall asleep and/or stay asleep.

Front 231

Narcolepsy

Back 231

1) Lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep.
2) Sudden brief periods of sleep

Front 232

Sleep apnea

Back 232

1) Inability to breath during sleep, sometimes more than a minute.
2) People awaken often to breath

Front 233

James-Lange Theory of emotions

Back 233

1) Proposed by William James and Carl Lange
2) Argue we become aware of our emotion after we notice our physiological reactions to some external event.
3) Emphasizes the role of PNS
Ex. We feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike.

Front 234

Cannon- Bard Theory

Back 234

1) Objection to James-Lange theory by Walter Cannon and Philip Bard.
2) Argue that emotions reflect physiological arousal of the ANS and specific neural circuits in the brain.
Ex. one brain circuit may correspond to sadness and another to euphoria.
3) Emotional responses include SIMULTANEOUS physiological arousal of the sympathetic nervous system

Front 235

Schacter-Singer Theory (two-factor theory of emotion)

Back 235

1) Stanley Schacter & J.E. Singerproposed two-factor theory of emotion.
2) The subjective experience of emotion is based on the interaction between changes in physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal.

Ex. In some situations a person will label a physiological arousal as anger and in another as euphoria based on environment.

Front 236

Schacter & Singer experiment

Back 236

1) injected subjects with adrenaline, which increased physiological arousal.
2) Half were told it increases arousal, half told it was a vitamin.
3) Placed in room with confederate who acted silly and joyful
4) Those who were told they took vitamin reported experiencing euphoria
5) Those who were told to expect arousal did not feel euphoria.

Front 237

William Sheldon

Back 237

1) Early theory of personality that characterized people by body type, relating body type (somatotypes) to personality type.
a) endomorphy- soft and spherical body type
b) mesomorphy- hard, muscular, and rectangular
c) ectomorphy- thin, fragile, lightly muscled

Front 238

Edward Thitchener

Back 238

1) Developed method of introspection
2) Formed the idea of structuralism

Front 239

Humanism

Back 239

1) Arose in opposition to psychoanalysis and behaviorism
2) Believe in notion of free will, people should be viewed as wholes rather than responses to stimuli or instinct.

Important people: 1) Abraham Maslow 2) Carl Rogers

Front 240

Philippe Pinel

Back 240

1) 1792 he vastly improved conditions of insane asylum in Paris which influenced the improvement of other institutions.

Front 241

Dorothea Dix

Back 241

1) Instrumental in improving treatment of hospitalized mentally ill in the U.S. from 1841-1881

Front 242

General Paresis

Back 242

1) Disorder characterized by delusions of grandeur, mental deterioration, eventual paralysis, and death.
2) The discovery that the etiology of disorder is due to syphilis advanced the understanding of abnormal psych. (First physiological cause to mental disorder)

Front 243

Cerletti & Bini

Back 243

1) Introduced use of electroshock to produce convulsions in schizophrenic patients as a treatment (didn't work).

Front 244

Prefrontal lobotomies

Back 244

1) Severing of frontal lobes from brain tissue
2) between 1935-1955 thousands of schizophrenic patients had this.
3) Didn't cure it just destroyed parts of brain that make us human, so patients became more tranquil

Front 245

Antipsychotic drugs

Back 245

1) Introduced in 1950's and stopped use of lobotomies and EST.
2) Many patients could be released from hospitals.

Front 246

Emil Kraepelin

Back 246

1) 1883 he wrote a book classifying many mental disorders.
2) Precursor to DSM

Front 247

Psychodynamic (psychoanalytic) theory

Back 247

1) Postulate the existence unconscious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality.

Front 248

Psychoanalysis overview

Back 248

Key people: Freud, Jung, Adler

Important concepts/goals/methods:
1) Behavior is a result of unconscious conflicts, repression, defense mechanisms.

Front 249

Sigmund Freud

Back 249

1) First comprehensive theory of personality and abnormal psychology
2) Structural dynamic model of personality

Front 250

Structural model of personality

Back 250

3 major systems:
1) Id
2) Ego
3) Superego

Front 251

Id

Back 251

1) Consists of everything psychological that is present at birth.
2) Functions according to pleasure principle.
3) Responds to frustration through primary process

Front 252

Pleasure principle (Id)

Back 252

1) Aims to immediately discharge any energy build-up (i.e. relieve tension)

Front 253

Primary process (Id)

Back 253

1) This is the Id's response to frustration- "Obtain satisfaction now, not later"

Ex. If person gets hungry and food isn't available, through primary process a memory image of food might alleviate the frustration.

Mental image known as WISH-FULFILLMENT

Front 254

Ego

Back 254

1) Operates according to reality principle.
2) It's mode of functioning is the secondary process.
3) Ego organizes the id, receiving its power from the if, it can't be independent from the id.

Front 255

Reality principle (ego)

Back 255

1) Takes into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits activity of the id and the id's pleasure principle.
2) Aim is to postpone pleasure principle until actual object that will satisfy need is discovered.

Front 256

Superego

Back 256

1) Moral branch of personality, strives for perfection.
2) Two sub-branches:
a) conscience: incorporates things we think are wrong
b) ego-ideal: incorporates things we think are good/ are rewarded for.

Front 257

Instinct

Back 257

1) Innate psychological representation (wish) of a bodily (biological) excitation (need).
2) Propelling aspect of Freud's theory
3) Two types of instincts:
a) Life (eros)
b) Death (thanatos)

Front 258

Life (eros) instincts

Back 258

1) Serve the purpose of individual survival (hunger, thirst, and sex)

Front 259

Libido

Back 259

1) Form of energy by which life instincts perform their work.

Front 260

Death (thanatos) instincts

Back 260

1) Unconscious wish for the ultimate absolute state of quiescence (death)

Front 261

Defense mechanisms

Back 261

1) The ego's recourse to releasing excessive pressures due to anxiety.
2) They all have 2 common characteristics: 1) deny, falsify, or distort reality and 2) operate unconsciously.

Front 262

8 main defense mechanisms

Back 262

1) Repression
2) Suppression
3) Projection
4) Reaction formation
5) Rationalization
6) Regression
7) Sublimation
8) Displacement

Front 263

Repression

Back 263

1) Unconscious forgetting of anxiety-provoking memories.

Front 264

Suppression

Back 264

1) More deliberate, conscious forgetting of anxiety-provoking memories

Front 265

Projection

Back 265

1) When a person attributes his forbidden urges to others.
Ex. Turns "I hate my uncle" into "my uncle hates me"

Front 266

Reaction formation

Back 266

1) Repressed wish is warded off by its diametrical opposite.

Ex. A boy who hates his brother and is punished for action may turn his feelings to exact opposite and shower his brother with affection.

Front 267

Regression

Back 267

1) Person reverting to earlier stage of development in response to a traumatic event.

Front 268

Sublimation

Back 268

1) Transforming unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors.

Ex. Want to hurt people, join boxing club.

Front 269

Displacement

Back 269

1) pent-up feelings (often hostility) are discharged on objects or people less dangerous than those objects or people causing the feeling.

Front 270

Carl Jung

Back 270

1) Psychodynamic theorist
2) Disagreed with Freud about libido
3) suggested unconscious could be divided into 1) PERSONAL UNCONSCIOUS and 2) COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS, with archetypes being in the collective unconscious

Front 271

Collective unconscious

Back 271

1) powerful system that is shared among all humans, considered to be residue of experiences of our early ancestors.
2) includes images that are a record of common experiences (having a mother and father)

Front 272

Archetypes

Back 272

1) A thought or image that has an emotional element. 2) The building blocks for the collective unconscious.

Front 273

Major Jungian archetypes

Back 273

1) persona
2) anima
3) animus
4) shadow
5) self

Front 274

Persona

Back 274

1) A mask that is adopted by a person in response to the demands of social convention.
2) Originates from social interactions in which the assumption of social role has served a useful purpose to humankind throughout history.

Front 275

Anima (feminine)/Animus (masculine)

Back 275

1) Help us to understand gender,the feminine behaviors in males and the masculine behaviors in females.

Front 276

Shadow

Back 276

1) Consists of animal instincts that humans inherited in the evolution from lower forms of life.
2) Responsible for the appearance in consciousness and behavior of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Front 277

Self

Back 277

1) The persons striving for unity, and is the point of intersection between the collective unconscious and conscious.
2) Jung symbolizes the self as mandala (magic circle), the reconciler of opposites and as the promoter of unity.

Front 278

Jung's two major orientations of personality

Back 278

1) introversion
2) extroversion

Both are present in personality but on is dominant.

Front 279

Extroversion

Back 279

1) An orientation toward the external, objective world.

Front 280

Introversion

Back 280

1) An orientation to the inner, subjective world.

Front 281

Jung's 4 psychological functions:

Back 281

1) thinking
2) feeling
3) sensing
4) intuiting

Typically one of the four is more differentiated than the others.

Front 282

Alfred Adler

Back 282

1) Psychodynamic theorist best known for concept of inferiority complex.
2) It is striving toward superiority that drives personality: enhances personality when it's socially oriented, but root of personality disorders when it's selfish or not socially oriented.

Front 283

Inferiority complex (Adler)

Back 283

The individuals sense of incompleteness, sense of imperfection, physical inferiorities as well as social disabilities.

Front 284

Creative self (Adler)

Back 284

1) Force by which each individual shapes their uniqueness and makes their own personality.

Front 285

Style of life (Adler)

Back 285

1) represents the manifestation of creative self and describes a persons unique way of achieving superiority.
2) Family is crucial in modeling style of life.

Front 286

Fictional finalism

Back 286

1) Part of Adler's theory
2) Notion that an individual is more motivated by their expectations of the future than by past experiences.
3) Human goals based on estimates of life's values rather than objective data from past.

Front 287

Differences between Freud, Jung, and Adler

Back 287

1) Freud: behavior is motivated by inborn INSTINCTS
2) Jung: behavior motivated by inborn ARCHETYPES
3) Adler: people motivated by striving for superiority

Front 288

Karen Horney

Back 288

1) Psychodynamic theorist who suggested three ways to relate to others: 1) moving toward, 2) moving against, and 3) moving away from.

Child use these strategies to overcome anxiety.

Developed 10 neurotic needs that fall under these categories.

Front 289

Anna Freud

Back 289

1) Founder of ego psychology
2) Further studied ego to advance psychoanalysis and psychotherapy.

Front 290

Erik Erickson

Back 290

1) Ego Psychologist
2) Expanded Freud's stages to cover entire lifespan

Front 291

Object-relations theory

Back 291

1) Falls under psychodynamic theory of personality
2) Object refers to symbolic representation of a significant part of a young child's personality.
3) Object-relations theorists look at the creation and development of these internalized objects in young children.
4) Theorists: Melanie Klein, D.W. Winnicott, Margaret Mahler, Otto Kernberg

Front 292

Psychoanalysis

Back 292

1) Therapy developed by Freud
2) Intensive, long-term treatment for uncovering repressed memories, motives and conflicts stemming from problems in psychosexual development.
Involved:
-Hypnosis
-Free association (client says whatever comes to mind)
-Dream interpretation
-Resistance-
-transference- (attribute attitudes to therapist that they have for others so they can work on them)
-Countertransference- therapist also will feel array of emotions toward patient.

Front 293

Abraham Maslow

Back 293

1) Humanist theorist
2) Hierarchy of human motives- strive for higher level needs only when lower level is met.

Front 294

Self actualization

Back 294

1) Highest level of Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
2) The need to realize one's fullest potential
3) Most people don't reach this.

Front 295

Peak experiences

Back 295

1) Profound and deeply moving experiences in a persons life that have important and lasting effects on the individual.
2) Maslow believe self-actualizing people were more likely to have these experiences.

Front 296

George Kelly

Back 296

1) Based personality theory on the notion of "individual as scientist"- a person who devises and tests the predictions about behavior of significant people in their life.
2) Anxious person has trouble constructing and understanding variables in their life.

Front 297

Humanist-Existential therapies

Back 297

1) Emphasize the process of finding meaning in ones life by making one's own choices.
2) Mental disorders viewed as stemming from alienation lack of meaning, etc.
3) Humanist therapy explores clients thoughts & feelings.
4) Existential therapy include empathy toward client, understanding, affirmation and positive regard.

Front 298

Carl Rogers

Back 298

1) Phenomenological personality theorist
2) Developed therapy known as client-centered therapy, person-centered therapy or nondirective therapy.
3) Believed client is able to reflect upon their own problems and determine their own destiny (to become ideal self)

Front 299

Victor Frankl

Back 299

1) Closely identified with human search for meaning to existence.
2) Mental illness stems from a life of meaninglessness.

Front 300

Type theorists

Back 300

Attempt to characterize people according to a specific type of personality.

Front 301

Trait theorists

Back 301

Attempt to ascertain the fundamental dimensions of personality.

Front 302

Type A personality

Back 302

1) Characterized by behavior that tends to be competitive and compulsive.
2) More prone to heart disease

Front 303

Type B personality

Back 303

1) Laid-back and relaxed
2) Most prevalent among middle and upper class men.

Front 304

Raymond Cattell

Back 304

1) Trait theorist used factor analysis to measure personality.
2) Identified 16 basic traits that are building blocks to personality.

Front 305

Hans Eysenck

Back 305

1) Also used factor analysis to develop theory of personality.
2) Broad dimensions of personality are types, followed by more specific traits.
3) Distinguished dimensions in which personality differs: a) introversion-extroversion, b) stability-neuroticism, and c) psychoticism

Front 306

Gordon Allport

Back 306

1) Trait theorist
2) Three types of traits: a) cadinal, b) central, and c) secondary

Front 307

Cardinal traits

Back 307

1) Traits around which a person organizes their life
2) Not everyone develops these.

Front 308

Central traits

Back 308

1) Major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer, such as honesty

Front 309

Secondary traits

Back 309

1) More personal traits that are more limited in occurrence

Front 310

Functional autonomy

Back 310

1) Major part of Allport's theory.
2) A given activity or form of behavior may become an end or goal in itself, regardless of its original reason for existence.

Ex. Hunter hunts to gather food, but even after there is enough food he still hunts just for the enjoyment.

Front 311

Idiographic (morphogenic) approach

Back 311

1) Allport distinguished this approach to studying personality.
2) Focuses on individual case studies (Allport promoted this form)

Front 312

Nomothetic (dimensional) approach

Back 312

1) Allport distinguished this approach to studying personality.
2) Focuses on groups of individuals and tried to find commonalities between individuals.

Front 313

David McClelland

Back 313

1) Identified the trait "need for achievement" (nAch)
2) People with high nAch tend to be concerned with achievement and have pride for accomplishments.
3) They avoid high and low risks, set realistic goals, and don't continue striving toward goal if success in unlikely.

Front 314

Herman Witkin

Back 314

Studied field-dependence and field independence using the rod-and-frame test.

1) Field-dependence- More influenced by opinions of others because they respond in a diffuse manner, difficulty distinguishing their own ideas from others.
2)Field-independence- Make specific responses to perceived specific stimuli.

Front 315

Julian Rotter

Back 315

1) Internal and external locus of control
2) Relationship with self-esteem: people who have high self-esteem attribute failure to external locus of control, those with low self do opposite.

Front 316

Internal locus of control

Back 316

1) People believe they control their own destiny
2) Have higher self esteem because they attribute success to their own ability

Front 317

External locus of control

Back 317

1) Believe destiny is controlled by outside forces or chance.

Front 318

Machiavellian

Back 318

1) Personality trait that refers to someone that is manipulative and deceitful.

2) People who score high on Machiavellianism are more successful manipulators.

Front 319

Androgyny

Back 319

1) The state of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine.

Front 320

Walter Mischel

Back 320

1) Mischel's criticism: believes human behavior is largely determined by characteristics of a SITUATION, rather than those of the person. (Behavior not based on personality traits)

Front 321

DSM-IV

Back 321

1) Classification system for mental disorders
2) Based on atheoretical descriptions of symptoms of the various disorders.
Ex. doesn't include neurosis because since it's a theoretical term**
3) Has 16 major diagnostic classes
4) System of multiaxial assessment

Front 322

Multiaxial assessment (DSM-IV)

Back 322

Clients are assessed on several different domains of information to help clinician plan treatment

Front 323

Axis I

Back 323

Clinician lists clients clinical disorders with exception of personality disorders and mental retardation.

Front 324

Axis II

Back 324

Is for personality disorders and mental retardation

Front 325

Axis III

Back 325

Used for recording any medical conditions that are potentially relevant to understanding or treating the clients mental disorder.

Front 326

Axis IV

Back 326

Used to indicate any psychosocial or environmental stresses that may influence progression, treatment, or outcome of the disorders from Axis I

Front 327

Axis V

Back 327

1) Indicates the clinicians judgement of the clients overall functioning level.
2) judgement is assessed by using a global assessment of functioning scale that ranges from 0 to 100.

Front 328

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADD/HD)

Back 328

1) Characterized by developmentally atypical inattention and/or impulsivity-hyperactivity.
2) Typically occurs by age 3, but usually isn't diagnosed until school age.
3) 3-5% of people experience symptoms, and more common in boys

Front 329

Tourette's syndrome

Back 329

1) Multiple motor tics and one or more vocal tics.
2) Lifelong duration, though periods of remission may occur.
Prevalence: 4-5/10,000

Front 330

Schizophrenia

Back 330

1) Used to be called dementia praecox**
2) Eugen Bleuler coined the term schizophrenia (split mind) in 1911
3) Characterized in gross distortions of reality and distortions in the content and form of thought, perception, and affect.
4) Person may have any or all symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, inappropriate affect, and catatonic behavior.
5) Symptoms divided into positive and negative symptoms.

Front 331

Positive symptoms (schizophrenia)

Back 331

1) Behaviors, thoughtd, or affects ADDED to normal behavior.
2) Some consider positive symtoms to be in 2 dimensions: 1) psychotic dimension and 2) disorganized dimension
Ex. Psychotic: delusions and hallucinations; disorganized: disorganized speech, and disorganized or catatonic behavior.

Front 332

Negative symptoms

Back 332

1) Involve the absence of normal or desired behavior.

Ex. flat affect or absence of normal or desired behavior.

Front 333

Delusions

Back 333

1) False beliefs, discordant with reality, that are maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary.

Common delusions:
1) delusions of reference- belief that others are talking about you.
2) delusions of grandeur
3) persecution

Other delusions:
-thought broadcasting- belief that ones thoughts are broadcast directly from ones head to the outside world.
-thought insertion: belief that thoughts are inserted in ones head.

Front 334

Hallucinations

Back 334

1) Perceptions that are not die to external stimuli but have a compelling sense of reality.
2) Auditory hallucinations most common

Front 335

Disorganized thought

Back 335

1) Characterized by the loosening of associations.
2) May be exhibited as speech where ideas shift from one subject to another

-Word salad: when speech is so disorganized it doesn't sense
-Neologisms: inventing new words in speech

Front 336

Affect disturbances

Back 336

1) Blunting- a serious reduction in the intensity of affect expression.
2) Flat affect- virtually no signs of affect.
3) Inappropriate affect- affect is clearly discordant with the content of the individuals speech or ideation (i.e. inappropriate laughing)

Front 337

Catatonic motor behavior

Back 337

1) Various extreme behaviors characteristic of some people with schizophrenia.
2) Spontaneous movement and activity may be greatly reduced or patient may maintain a rigid posture, refusing to be moved.
3) May include useless and bizarre movements not caused by any outside stimuli.

Front 338

Prodromal phase

Back 338

1) phase characterized by poor adjustment people usually experience prior to schizophrenic diagnosis.
2) Clear evidence of deterioration, social withdrawal, role functioning impairment, peculiar behavior, inappropriate affect, and unusual experiences.
3) Followed by active phase of symptomatic behavior.

Front 339

Process Schizophrenia

Back 339

1) When development is slow and insidious.
2) Prognosis for recovery is low.

Front 340

Reactive Schizophrenia

Back 340

1) Onset of symptoms is intense and sudden
2) Prognosis for recovery is better

Front 341

5 subtypes of schizophrenia (based on DSM)

Back 341

1) Catatonic
2) Paranoid
3) Disorganized
4) undifferentiated
5) residual

Front 342

Catatonic schizophrenia

Back 342

1) Primary symptom is a disturbance in motor behavior.
2) Alternation between extreme withdrawal of behavior (no movement, maintenance of peculiar position for hours)and excitement or excessive movement

Front 343

Paranoid schizophrenia

Back 343

1) Characterized by preoccupation with one or more delusions or frequent auditory hallucinations.
2) There is a relative preservation of cognitive and affective functioning.

Front 344

Disorganized schizophrenia

Back 344

1) Characterized by flat or inappropriate affect and disorganized speech and behavior.

Front 345

Undifferentiated schizophrenia

Back 345

1) Diagnosed when the general criteria for other categories are not met.

Front 346

Residual schizophrenia

Back 346

1) This diagnosis is used when there has been a previous schizophrenic episode, but positive psychotic symptoms are not currently displayed.
2) Patients may still show disturbances and negative symptoms.

Front 347

Dopamine hypothesis

Back 347

1) Leading biochemical explanation for schizophrenia.
2) Suggests that the delusions, hallucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from an excess of dopamine activity in certain areas of brain.
3) A variant of this theory is that there is an oversensitivity to dopamine or too many receptors that receive the dopamine rather than an overabundance.

Front 348

Double-blind hypothesis

Back 348

1) Theory that schizophrenia is caused from a child receives contradictory or mutually incompatible messages from his or her primary caregiver.
2) This theory isn't widely accepted.
3) There is evidence that faulty family communication may play some role in explaining the origins of some forms of schizophrenia.

Front 349

Major depressive disorder

Back 349

1) Characterized by at least one major depressive event.
2) Must be at least a 2-week period of depressed mood or loss of interest in almost all activities.
3) Symptoms must cause significant distress or impairment in functioning to diagnose.
4) 15% of people with this die from suicide.

Front 350

Bipolar disorders

Back 350

1) Characterized by both depression and mania.
2) Manic symptoms usually have a quick onset and shorter duration than depressive symptoms.
3) Bipolar I has these manic episodes, Bipolar II has hypomania.

Front 351

Hypomania

Back 351

1) Occurs in Bipolar II
2) Mania symptoms that typically don't significantly impair functioning, nor are there psychotic symptoms.
3) Individual may be more energetic and optimistic.

Front 352

Dysthymic and cyclothymic disorders

Back 352

1) Dysthymic- form of depression
2) Cyclothymic- form of bipolarism

Don't meet the criteria for major depressive and bipolar disorder but are characterized by similar, less severe symptoms.

Front 353

Monoamine/catecholamine theory of depression

Back 353

1) Theorize that too much norepinephrine and serotonin leads to mania, while too little leads to depression.

Front 354

Phobia

Back 354

1) An irrational fear of something that results in a compelling desire to avoid it.

Front 355

Specific phobia

Back 355

1) A phobia in which anxiety is produced by a specific object or situation.
Example: a) acrophobia- fear of heights; b) cynophobia- fear of dogs

Front 356

Agoraphobia

Back 356

1) Fear of being in open places or situations where escape might be difficult.
2) Tend to be uncomfortable going outside of home alone.

Front 357

Social phobia

Back 357

1) Characterized by anxiety that is due to social situations.
2) have a persistent fear when exposed to social/performance situations that may result in embarrassment.

Front 358

OCD

Back 358

1) Characterized by repeated obsessions that produce tension and or compulsions that cause significant impairment in one's life.
2) obsessions are thoughts; compulsions are behaviors.

Front 359

Somatoform disorders

Back 359

1) Involve the presence of physical symptoms that suggest a medical condition but are not fully explained by a medical condition.
2) The person is not faking, but really believes they have a medical condition

Front 360

Conversion disorder

Back 360

1) Characterized by unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions.
2) This is a type of somatoform disorder.
3) Used to be referred to as hyteria
Ex: Paralysis when there is no neurological damage, Blindness when there is no evidence of damage.

Front 361

Hypochondriasis

Back 361

1) Person is preoccupied with fears that he or she has a serious disease.
2) Based on misinterpretation of bodily signs or symptoms.
3) Fears persist even after medical exams show they don't have anything.

Front 362

Dissociative disorder

Back 362

1) Person avoids stress by dissociating, or escaping from his or her identity.
2) Person otherwise still has intact sense of reality.
Forms include: a) dissociative amnesia; b) dissociative fugue; c) dissociative identity disorder; d) depersonalization disorder

Front 363

Dissociative amnesia

Back 363

1) Characterized by an inability to recall past experience.
2) The amnesia is not due to neurological disorder.

Front 364

Dissociative fugue

Back 364

1) Amnesia that accompanies a sudden, unexpected move away from ones home or location of usual daily activities.
2) Person in fugue state is confused about their identity and may even assume a new identity.

Front 365

Dissociative identity disorder

Back 365

(formerly multiple personality disorder)
1) There are two or more personalities that recurrently take control of a persons behavior.
2) Results when the components of identity fail to integrate.
Ex: Sybil who had 15 separate personalities; Truddi Chase who had 92 separate personalities.
3) Most patients have suffered severe physical or sexual abuse
4) With much therapy personalities can usually be integrated.

Front 366

Depersonalization disorder

Back 366

1) Person feels detached, like an outside observer of their mental processes and/or behavior.
2) person still has an intact sense of reality.

Front 367

Anorexia nervosa

Back 367

1) Characterized by refusal to maintain a minimum normal body weight.
2) Have distorted body image
3) Amenorrhea (cessation of menstruation) usually occurs.
4) 90% are women and 10% of hospitalized cases result in death

Front 368

Bulimia nervosa

Back 368

1) Involves binge eating accompanied by excessive attempts to compensate by purging, fasting, or excessive exercising.
2) Individual usually tend to maintain a minimally normal body weight.
3) 90% of cases are female.

Front 369

Personality disorder

Back 369

1) a pattern of behavior that is inflexible and maladaptive, causing distress and/or impaired functioning in 2 or more of the following: a) cognition, b) emotions c) interpersonal functioning or d) impulse control.

2) 4 types include (there are 10 total): 1) schizoid, 2) narcissism, 3) borderline, and 4) antisocial.

Front 370

Schizoid personality disorder

Back 370

1) Pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression.
2) Show little desire for social interaction, have few friends, and poor social skills.

Front 371

Narcissistic personality disorder

Back 371

1) A grandiose sense of self-importance or uniqueness, preoccupation with fantasies of success, an exhibitionistic need for constant admiration and attention, and characteristics of disturbances in interpersonal relationships such as feelings of entitlement.
2) People have a very fragile self-esteem and are always concerned with how people are viewing them.
3) May be marked feelings of rage, inferiority, shame, humiliation, or emptiness when these individuals are not viewed as favorable by others.

Front 372

Borderline personality disorder

Back 372

1) Show behavior that has features of both personality disorder and some of the more severe psychological disorders.
2) Pervasive instability in interpersonal behavior, mood, and self-image
3) Interpersonal relationships are usually intense and unstable.
4) May be profound identity disturbance manifested by uncertainty about self-image, sexual identity, long-term goals, or values.
5) often intense fear of abandonment
6) Suicide attempts and self-mutilation are common.

Front 373

Antisocial personality disorder

Back 373

(Previously psychopathic disorder and sociopathic disorder)
1) Disregard for, and violation of the rights of others.
2) Evidenced by repeated illegal acts, deceitfulness, aggressiveness, and/or lack of remorse.
3) Serial killers who show no guilt for their actions, impostors and many career criminals have this disorder.

Front 374

Diathesis-stress model

Back 374

1) Framework that can be used to assess the causes of disorders.
2) A diathesis is a predisposition for developing a mental disorder.
3) Excessive stress operating on a person with a disposition may lead to the development of the specific mental disorder.
4) according to model, person with an oversensitivity to dopamine and who also experiences excessive stress may be likely to develop schizophrenia.

Front 375

Primary prevention

Back 375

1) Efforts to seek out and eradicate conditions that foster mental illness and to establish the conditions that foster mental health.
2) Aims to stop mental illness before it occurs.

Ex: a) increasing access to good prenatal and postnatal care, b) providing training in psychosocial skills , training parents, etc.

Front 376

David Rosenhan

Back 376

1) (1973) studied whether it's possible to be labeled sane if you're in an insane place (psych hospital)
2) Rosenhan and 7 others went into psychiatric hospitals saying they had auditory hallucinations. All were admitted and diagnosed as either bipolar or paranoid schizophrenic.
3) They acted totally normal in hospital but their actions were interpreted by clinicians as abnormal and using defense mechanism of intellectualization.

Front 377

Thomas Szasz

Back 377

1) outspoken critic of labeling mentally ill, argues most disorders treated by clinicians are not really illnesses.
2) They are traits or behaviors that differ from the cultural norm.
3) Argues labeling people as mentally ill forces them to change and conform to social norms rather than challenging the norms.
4) Wrote The Myth of Mental Illness**

Front 378

Social psychology

Back 378

1) Concerned with social behavior , ways in which people influence each others attitudes and behavior, impact individuals have on one another.

Front 379

Triplett

Back 379

1) published first study on social psychology in 1898
2) investigated the effect of competition on performance.
3) People perform better in presence of others than when alone.

Front 380

McDougall & Ross

Back 380

1) Both independently published first textbooks on social psych in 1908.

Front 381

Verplank

Back 381

1) His experiments suggested social approval influences behavior.
2) Showed course of conversation changes dramatically based on feedback.

Front 382

Reinforcement theory

Back 382

1) Holds that behavior is motivated by anticipated rewards.

Front 383

Role theory
-who?
-what?

Back 383

1) Bindle, 1979
2) perspective that people are aware of the social roles they are supposed to fill, & much of their behavior can be attributed to adopting those roles.

Front 384

Cognitive theory

Back 384

1) Influential theory in social psych.
2) Perceptions, judgement, memories and decision making all influence our understanding of social behavior.

Front 385

Attitudes

Back 385

1) "keystone of modern social psych"
2) Attitudes include: cognition or beliefs, feelings, and behavioral predisposition.
3) They're typically expressed in opinion statements
4) Likes/dislikes

Front 386

Consistency theories
-what is it about?
-what does it state?

Back 386

Theories about how attitude changes:
1) Hold that people prefer consistency, and will change or resist change based on this preference.
2) Inconsistencies are viewed as stimuli or irritants.

Ex. If person hates smoke but starts dating a smoker, the person will try to resolve this inconsistency.

Front 387

Fritz Heider's balance theory

Back 387

1) Consistency theory
2) Concerned with the way 3 elements are related: 1) person we're talking about (P); 2) Some other person (O); 3) and a thing, idea or some other person (X)
3) Balance exists when all 3 fit together harmoniously
4) Imbalance leads to stress and tendency to remove stress by achieving balance.

Front 388

Ex. of Heider's balance theory

Back 388

1) Patrick likes Olivia, Patrick likes Chinese food, but Olivia doesn't like chinese food.
This is an imbalance that needs to be resolved.

2) Patrick doesn't like Olivia, Patrick likes Chinese food, Olivia likes chinese food.
This is an imbalance because he doesn't like Olivia but they both like Chinese food.

Front 389

Leon Festinger's cognitive dissonance

Back 389

1) The conflict that you feel when your attitudes are not in line with your behavior.
2) Engaging in behavior that's inconsistent with attitude may change attitude.
3) Dissonance can be reduced by changing dissonant elements or adding consonant elements (Believe smoking causes cancer so only smoke low-tar cigarettes)

Front 390

Free-choice dissonance

Back 390

1) Occurs in a situation where person makes a choice between several desirable alternatives.
Ex. Choosing between 2 people you like equally.

Front 391

Post-decisional dissonance

Back 391

1) Dissonance that occurs after free-choice dissonance because the choices were equally desirable.

Front 392

Spreading of alternatives

Back 392

1) Attempt to spread out the worth of 2 alternatives that were previously seen as equally desirable.
Ex. telling yourself one is better than the other
2) This is an attempt to reduce the dissonance you feel from having to choose 1.

Front 393

Forced-compliance dissonance

Back 393

1) Occurs when individual is forced to behavior in manner that's inconsistent with attitudes or beliefs.
2) The force may come from anticipated punishment or reward.

Ex. Child can eat ice cream after they finish spinach but they don't like spinach.

Front 394

Festinger & Carlsmith experiment (1959)*

Back 394

1) Subjects asked to do boring tasks
2) Then they had to tell next subject(who was a confederate) that the task was enjoyable and interesting
3) Some were paid $1 and other $20 to mislead.
4) People who received $1 reported experiment as more enjoyable.
5) Subjects who got $1 experienced cognitive dissonance because the incentive wasn't as large so they had to change their attitude about the experiment (it was enjoyable).
6) When behavior is justifiable by external inducements ($20), you don't need to change cognitions

Front 395

Minimal (insufficient) justification effect

Back 395

1) When external justification for cognitive dissonance is minimal, you will reduce your dissonance by changing internal cognitions (ex. from thinking task was boring to thinking it wasn't bad)

Front 396

2 main principles of cognitive dissonance

Back 396

1) If person is pressured to do something contrary to their beliefs/attitudes, there will be a tendency to change those attitudes.

2) The greater the pressure to comply, the less this attitude change. Attitude change generally occurs when behavior is induced with minimum pressure.

Front 397

Daryl Bem's Self-Perception Theory

Back 397

1) Idea that when your attitudes about something are weak or ambiguous, you observe your own behavior and attribute an attitude to yourself.
2) People infer what their attitudes are based on their own behavior.
Ex. Ask man if he likes wheat bread, "I guess so since I always eat it."
3) Key difference from Festinger: Bem doesn't hypothesize a state of discomfort/dissonance. Person's initial attitude is irrelevant and their isn't dissonance produced by behavior.

Front 398

Overjustification effect

Back 398

1) If you reward someone for something they already enjoy doing they might stop liking it.
2) This is an implication of self-perception theory.

Front 399

Carl Hovland's model

Back 399

1) Deals with attitude change as a process of communicating a message with the intent to persuade someone.

2) Communication of persuasion has 3 components: 1) Communicator, 2) Communication (presentation of argument), 3) the situation

Front 400

Carl Hovland & Walter Weiss study (1952)

Back 400

1) Study on source of credibility
2) Presented controversial arguments to subjects by credible and non-credible sources.
3) High credible sources were more effective in changing attitudes that low-credible.

Front 401

Sleeper effect

Back 401

1) Over time the persuasive impact of high credible sources decrease and that of low-credible sources increases.

Front 402

Arguing against self-interest

Back 402

1) This increases a person's perceived credibility.

Ex. drug addict arguing against drug use.

Front 403

Two-sided messages

Back 403

1) Contain argument for and against a position
2) Often used for persuasion since communication seems balances.
3) News stations often use this.

Front 404

Petty & Cacioppo's elaboration likelihood model of persuasion.

Back 404

1) Suggests two routes of persuasion:
a) Central route, b) Peripheral route

Front 405

Central route to persuasion

Back 405

1) Use when an issue is important to us.
2) If persuader is trying to change our mind about something important to us we follow argument closely and develop our own counter-arguments.
3) It takes strong arguments to change our minds.

Front 406

Peripheral route to persuasion.

Back 406

1) Use this route when we don't care about issue, can't hear it clearly, or are distracted.
2) Strength of argument doesn't matter.
3) What matters is by who or in what surroundings the argument is being presented.

Front 407

Analogy of inoculation

Back 407

1) Used by William McGuire to explain resistance to persuasion.
2) argues inoculation process in body (vaccine) is similar in mind.
3) Can inoculate mind against attack of persuasive communications.

Front 408

Cultural Truisms

Back 408

1) Beliefs that are seldom questioned.
Ex. Vegetables are good for you.
2) This is vulnerable because the individual has never had practice defending it.

Front 409

Refuted counter-arguments

Back 409

1) A strategy to inoculate people against attacks on cultural truisms by presenting arguments against them then refuting the argument.
2) In experiments William McGuire found this is effective in resistance to attacks on cultural truisms
3) Those that weren't inoculated were susceptible to attack.

Front 410

Belief perseverance

Back 410

1) Holding on to beliefs even after they have been proven wrong.

2) If you are induced to believe something, then come up with your own explanation why that is true, you will likely not change your belief after it's proven false.

Front 411

Reactance

Back 411

If you try too hard to get someone to do something and their freedom feels threatened, they will do the opposite.

Front 412

Leon Festinger's social comparison theory

Back 412

1) Suggests we are drawn to affiliate because of a tendency to evaluate ourselves in comparison with others.

Front 413

Three principles of Social Comparison Theory

Back 413

1) People prefer to evaluate themselves by objective, non-social means. When it's not possible, people evaluate their abilities and opinions in comparison to others.
2) The less similarity between abilities and opinions, the less the tendency to make these comparisons.
3) When a discrepancy exists with respect to abilities and opinion, there is a tendency to change ones position to fit in line with group.

Front 414

Stanley Schachter

Back 414

1) Research found that greater anxiety leads to greater desire to affiliate.
2) Anxious people prefer the company of other anxious people.
3) Anxiety and need to compare oneself with others play a role in who we affiliate with.

Front 415

Reciprocity hypothesis

Back 415

1) We tend to like people who indicate they like us.
2) We tend to dislike people who indicate they dislike us.

Front 416

Gain-loss principle
-who?
-what?

Back 416

1) Aronson & Linder
2) We will like someone more if their liking of us has increased rather than stay constant.
4) We will dislike someone more whose dislike for us has increased than someone who's has stayed the same.

Front 417

Social exchange theory

Back 417

1) Assumes that a person weighs the rewards and costs of associated with other people.
2) The more the rewards outweigh the cost the more likely they are attracted to associate.

Front 418

Equity theory

Back 418

1) Proposes we consider our costs and rewards, and also the cost and rewards of the other person.
2) Prefer that our ratio of cost and rewards be equal to that of the other person.

Front 419

Individual characteristics that play a role in affiliation and attraction (5)

Back 419

1) Similarity
2) Complementarity (Talkative & listener)
3) Physical attraction
4) proximity
5) Exposure

Front 420

Attractiveness stereotype

Back 420

1) Researchers repeatedly capture physical attractiveness as a determinant of attractiveness.

2) May be attributable to attractiveness stereotype: the tendency to attribute positive traits to attractive people.

Front 421

Mere exposure hypothesis
-who?
-what?

Back 421

1) Robert Zajonc
2) The mere repeated exposure to a stimulus leads to enhanced liking for it.

Front 422

Helping behavior

Back 422

1) Includes altruism along with behaviors that may be motivated by egoism or selfishness

Front 423

Altruism

Back 423

1) A form of helping behavior in which a persons intent is to benefit someone else at some cost to themselves.

Front 424

Darley & Latane
-what does research focus on?
-studied what intervention?
-what incident?

Back 424

1) Most celebrated research in helping behavior
2) Studied bystander intervention
3) In response to stabbing of Kitty Genovese in Kew Gardens, NY March 1964

Front 425

Kew Gardens, NY stabbing
-2 reasons for inactivity?

Back 425

1) Darley and Latane concluded no one did anything because of:
a) social influence- influence of others present
b) diffusion of responsibility (main reason)

Front 426

Studying social influence

Back 426

1) Latane & Darley
2) Subjects are waiting for an interview, they see smoke.
3) Subject either alone or with confederates.
4) If they were with confederates who didn't respond, they wouldn't respond either.

Front 427

Pluralistic ignorance

Back 427

People assume something isn't an emergency because others don't respond.

Front 428

Studying diffusion of responsibility

Back 428

1) Latane & Darley
2) Led subjects to believe they're participating in discussion on college life.
3) Everyone is separate booths.
4) When subject thought they were the only one listening to another person having a seizure they reported it 100% of time.
5) The more people they thought knew about the seizure, the left likely they were to report it.

Front 429

Empathy
-what is it?
-what does it influence?

Back 429

The ability to vicariously experience the emotions of others, thought to be a strong influence on helping behavior.

Front 430

Batson's empathy-altruism model

Back 430

1) Explanation for relationship between empathy and altruism.
2) When faced with situations where someone needs help, people might feel distressed and/or they might feel empathy.
3) Both feelings important since either can determine helping behavior.
4) Those in easy escape condition who reported more distress tended to leave rather than help.
5) Those who reported more empathy were more likely to help regardless of condition.

Front 431

Frustration-aggression hypothesis

Back 431

1) An explanation for aggressive behavior
2) When people are frustrated they act aggressively
3) Strength of aggression is correlated to level of aggression observed.

Front 432

Bandura's social learning theory
-What is learned?
-through what 2 ways?
-What study?

Back 432

1) Aggression is learned though modeling (direct observation) , or through reinforcement.
2) Bobo doll study- kids viewed someone playing either normal or aggressively, then they frustrated the kids, those who viewed aggressive bx more likely to be aggressive toward doll.
3) Bandura also thinks aggressive behavior is reinforced.

Front 433

Muzafer Sherif
-What study?
-What was being described?

Back 433

1) Social conformity study- when estimating the autokinetic effect (the illusion of light moving in dark room), people conformed their answers to match that of the group.

Front 434

Solomon Asch
-What was studied?
-What was being described?

Back 434

1) Study on conformity
2) Subjects more likely to choose the wrong answer (comparing lengths of lines) when everyone else in the room chose the wrong answer.

Front 435

Stanley Milgram
What was he studying?

Back 435

1) Obedience study
2) Experimenter prods subject to give electric shock to learner.
3) Majority (65%) continue shocking up to maximum voltage.
4) Did other variations of study and found similar results.
5) Compares the obedience to the obedience of the Nazi's who murdered the jews.

Front 436

Compliance

Back 436

A change in behavior that occurs as a result of situational or interpersonal pressure.

Front 437

Foot in the door effect

Back 437

1) Demonstrates that compliance to a small request increases likelihood of compliance to a larger request

Front 438

Door in the face effect

Back 438

1) People who refuse a larger request are more likely to comply with a smaller request after.

Front 439

Clark & Clark
-What was study about?
-Used findings for what?

Back 439

1) Doll preference study
2) studied ethnic self-concept among black and white children.
3) Majority of white and black children preferred white doll.
4) Study used to argue against school segregation in Brown vs. Board of ed case.

Front 440

Dimensions of personal identity
-how are the organized?

Back 440

1) Individuals have more than one dimension of personal identity
2) Its believed identities are organized in a hierarchy of salience- which one holds the most importance in a particular situation

Front 441

Social perception

Back 441

1) The way we form impressions about the characteristics of individuals and groups of people.

Front 442

Primacy effect

Back 442

1) Occasions when first impressions are more important than subsequent impressions

Front 443

Recency effect

Back 443

1) When most recent information we have about an individual is most important in forming impressions.

Front 444

Attribution theory

Back 444

1) Focuses on the tendency for people to infer the causes of others behavior.
2) Fritz Heider- founding father
3) We're all mini psychologists trying to determine cause for behavior.
4) Have bias toward dispositional causes rather than situational causes.

Front 445

Dispositional causes of behavior

Back 445

1) Related to attribution theory
2) These causes of behavior relate to the features of the person whose behavior we are inferring.
Ex. Beliefs, attitudes, and personality characteristics of the person.

Front 446

Situational causes of behavior

Back 446

1) Related to attribution theory
2) These causes are external and are those that relate to the particular situation rather than the person.
Ex. Threats, money, socials norms and peer pressure.

Front 447

Fundamental attribution error

Back 447

1) The bias toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational.

Ex. Looking for personality flaws in the Kitty Genovese witnesses and Milgram study subjects rather than situational influences.

Front 448

Halo effect

Back 448

1)The tendency to allow a general impression of a person to influence other, more specific evaluations of a person.

2) Explains why people are often inaccurate in evaluations of people they see as generally good or bad.

Front 449

Belief in a just world
-who studied it?

Back 449

1) M.J. Lerner studied the tendency of individuals to believe in a just world
2) Strong belief in a just world increases likelihood of blaming the victim since a just world view denies possibility of innocent victims.

Front 450

Theodore Newcomb's study
-Demonstrated influence of what?
-What did study find?

Back 450

1) Study demonstrated influence of group norms.
2) Women at Bennington college came from mainly republican backgrounds but school was primarily liberal.
3) Compared voting of freshman and upperclassmen- upperclassmen more likely to vote for democrat.

Front 451

Proxemics
-Study of what?
-Who researched this?

Back 451

1) Study of how far individuals place themselves in relation to others.
2) Edward hall suggests there are cultural norms in how far away we stand.
3) In US we stand closer to those we're intimate with than those we aren't

Front 452

Zajonc's theory

Back 452

1) The presence of others increases arousal and subsequently enhances emission of dominant responses.
2) In beginners, dominant response is likely to be wrong. (Presence of others hinders performance)
3) In experts, dominant response likely to be right (presence of others enhances performance)

Front 453

Social loafing

Back 453

1) Tendency for people to put forth less effort when part of a group than when individually.

Ex. Tug of war force of pulling is only half the sum of everyones pulling force when alone. (only pull half as hard)

Front 454

Philip Zimbardo

Back 454

1) Suggests people are more likely to commit antisocial acts when they feel anonymous within a social environment.
2) Prison study
3) Suggests deindividuation led to the findings

Front 455

Deindividuation

Back 455

1) A loss of self-awareness and personal identity.
2) Zimbardo suggests this is what happened in prison study.
3) Subjects lost a sense of who they were and took on identity of role they were playing.

Front 456

Irving Janis

Back 456

1) Studied ways in which group decisions go awry.
2) Suggests Bay of pigs & lack of preparation for pearl harbor due to Groupthink

Front 457

Groupthink

Back 457

1)Tendency of decision-makers to strive for consensus by not considering discordant information.

Ex. In bay of pigs, no one considered spot they were supposed to retreat to if something went wrong was 80 miles away and full of swamps.

Front 458

Risky shift
- what is it?
-What hypothesis is associated with it?

Back 458

1) Group decisions are riskier than the average of individual decisions.

2) Value hypothesis- seeks to explain risky shift. In cultures where risk is valued more (business), group members that are less riskier will compare themselves to those that are risker and shift to riskier decision.

Front 459

James Stoner experiment

Back 459

1) (1968) couples has to choose between allowing pregnancy that could harm mother, or terminate the pregnancy.
2) Couples chose less risky option of terminating baby.
3) Contradicts risky shift- the content of item can determine the shift.

Front 460

Group polarization

Back 460

1) Tendency for group discussion to enhance the initial tendencies toward riskiness or caution.
2) If group is initially more risky, they become riskier. If groups initially more cautious, become more cautious.

Front 461

Kurt Lewin's study

Back 461

1) Study to determine the effects of different leadership styles.
2) Manipulated leadership style in boys after school program.
3) Laissez- faire groups were less efficient, less organized and less satisfying for boys than democratic leadership.
4) Autocratic groups more hostile, aggressive, and dependent on leader.

Front 462

Prisoner's dilemma
- what is it studying?
-What influences it?

Back 462

1) Method for investigating peoples choices to compete or cooperate.
2) Prisoner A and Prisoner B, both assumed to be guilty by DA.
3) If both stay quiet (cooperate), they get misdemeanor.
4) If both confess, get medium sentence.
5) One tells on the other (competes), and other stays quiet (cooperates)- person who competes gets off and person who cooperates get worse sentence.
6) Decision to cooperate or compete depends on if they trust each other or are motivated by self-interest.

Front 463

Robber's cave experiment
-Who studied it?
-What is it studying?
-What was the mediator?

Back 463

1) Conducted by Muzafer Sharif on competition & cooperation
2) Two groups of boys at camps. Each group built cooperation between their own group.
3) Then competed against opposite group and developed hostility between groups.
4) Hostilities were only resolved through subordinate goals- goals that require intergroup cooperation
Ex. fixing broken down truck together, solving problem of money for movies.

Front 464

Developmental psychology

Back 464

1) Task is to describe and explain changes in human behavior over time.

Front 465

British empiricist school of thought

Back 465

1) Believed that all knowledge is gained through experience.
2) Formed by: John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, George Berkeley, David Hume, James Mill, John Stuart Mill.

Front 466

John Locke
-what school of development?

Back 466

1) British empiricist school of thought
2) Considered child's mind a TABULA RASA- a blank slate at birth.
3) Mind is born without predisposition, completely dependent on environment.

Front 467

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Back 467

1) Wrote book Emile: Concerning education (very controversial)
2) Believed society was unnecessary and detrimental to optimal development (opposite of Locke)

Front 468

Charles Darwin

Back 468

1) Kept a detailed "baby biography"
2) His evolutionary theory influenced the functionalist system of thought.
3) caused researchers to study individual differences.

Front 469

G. Stanley Hall*
-What school of development?

Back 469

1) Father of developmental psychology
2) one of first psychologists to study children
3) Compiled questionnaires on views of children and compared them based on age.
4) One of founders of APA
5) Founder of child and adolescent psychology

Front 470

John Watson
-What school of development?
-Strong proponent of what type of psych?
-What is responsible for child development?

Back 470

1) Wrote "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It", an article published in Psychological Review
2) Criticized psychology for being too focused on mentalistic concepts.
3) Believed in environmental influences on devel; accepted Locke's tabula rasa view.
4) Placed much responsibility on parents for raising competent children.
5) Only believed in objective measures of psychology
6) Wrote: Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-informed, and my own special world to bring them up in and I guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist..."

Front 471

Arnold Gesell
-What school of development is he in?

Back 471

1) Development occurs as a maturational (biological) process, regardless of practice or training.
2) Nativist- believed that much of development was biologically based and developmental blueprint exists from birth.

Front 472

Psychodynamic orientation

Back 472

1) System of thought grew out of clinical setting
2) Freud
3) Stress the role of subconscious conflicts in the development of functioning and personality.

Front 473

Cognitive structuralists

Back 473

1) Orientation most strongly influenced by Piaget.
2) Children are actively involved in their development- constructing knowledge of the world through their experiences with the environment.
3) Opposite of behaviorist

Front 474

Cross-sectional studies

Back 474

1) Compare different age groups at one time point

Front 475

Longitudinal studied

Back 475

Compare a specific group for extended period of time

Front 476

Sequential cohort

Back 476

1) Combine cross-sectional and longitudinal studies.
2) Several age groups studied over time.

Front 477

Clinical method

Back 477

Case study

Front 478

Research methods for determining genetic influence

Back 478

1) family studies- can't distinguish shared environment factors from genetic factors.
2) Twin studies
3) Adoption studies

Front 479

MZ and DZ twin studies on personality

Back 479

1) MZ twins reared together are most similar
2) MZ twins reared apart more similar than DZ twins reared together
3) DZ twins reared apart are least similar

Front 480

IQ & criminal similarities in adoption studied

Back 480

1) IQ of adopted child is more similar to biological parent (inherited)
2) Criminal behavior among boys shows similar patten (inherited)

Front 481

Lewis Terman's study

Back 481

1) Compared differences in kids with high IQ to kids in general population
2) First study on "gifted" children
3) Was a large-scale longitudinal study

Front 482

Down's Syndrome

Back 482

1) Extra 21st chromosome
2) Have varying levels of mental retardation
3) Older parents have increased chance of having child with this genetic mutation

Front 483

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Back 483

1) Degenerative disease of nervous system
2) Results when enzyme needed to digest phenylanine, amino acid found in milk, is lacking.
3) Test now given to infants to avoids effects of digesting phenylanine. (first genetic disease that could be tested in large populations.

Front 484

Klinefelter's Syndrome

Back 484

1) When males possess an extra X chromosome (XXY)
2) Are sterile and often have MR

Front 485

Turner's Syndrome

Back 485

1) When females have only 1 X chromosome
2) Results in failure to develop secondary sex characteristics.
3) Often have physical abnormalities (short fingers, abnormal mouths)

Front 486

Stages of prenatal development

Back 486

1) Zygote
2) Germinal period
3) Embryonic period (8 weeks following germinal per.)
4) Fetal period (begins 3rd month)

Front 487

Conception

Back 487

1) Takes place in fallopian tubes where the egg cell is fertilized by sperm.

Front 488

Gametes

Back 488

1) Human sex cells (sperm & ovum/egg cell)

Front 489

Zygote

Back 489

1) single fertiized cell

Front 490

Germinal period

Back 490

1) Lasts approx. two weeks from time of conception
2) Starts to divide and travel down fallopian tube to uterus where it's implanted.

Front 491

Embryonic stage

Back 491

1) Lasts approx. 8 weeks
2) Increases in size by 2 million percent.
3) Grows to about an inch and develops a human appearance (limbs, fingers, toes, genitals)
4) Nerve cells in spine develop first behaviors, motion of limbs.

Front 492

Fetal period

Back 492

1) Onset during 3rd month
2) Marked by beginning of electrical activity in brain

Front 493

External threats to prenatal development

Back 493

1) Rubella or German measles in mothers- cataracts, deafness, heart defects, & MR.
2) Other threats: viral infections, measles, mumps, hepatitis, influenza, chickenpox, & herpes.

Front 494

Thalidomine

Back 494

1) tranquilizer prescribed to mothers in 1950's that led to babies with deformations.

Front 495

Adverse maternal influences on development

Back 495

1) Maternal malnutrition- leading cause of abnormal development
2) Protein deficiency
3) Narcotic addiction
4) Prenatal exposure to X-rays

Front 496

Reflex

Back 496

1) Behavior the occurs automatically in response to a given stimuli
2) Babies have several at birth: rooting reflex, sucking & swallowing
3) Many used to assess infant neural development

Front 497

Moro reflex

Back 497

1) infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, extending their fingers, and then bringing arms back into body and hugging themselves.
2) Believed to have developed when our ancestors lived in trees
3) Disappears around 4 months, presence at one year is indicator of developmental difficulties.

Front 498

Babinski reflex

Back 498

1) Toes spread out when sole of foot is stimulated.

Front 499

Grasping reflex

Back 499

1) Infant closes fingers around an object placed in palm

Front 500

Rooting reflex

Back 500

Infants turn heads in direction of stimuli applied to cheek (important for breast feeding)

Front 501

Jean Piaget

Back 501

1) Believed in qualitative differences in child and adult thought.
2) 4 stages of cognitive development
3) Cognitive growth is continuous process that begins at birth and proceeds through the stages.

Front 502

Schema

Back 502

1) Organized patterns of behavior or thought.
2) infants develop behavioral schemata, characterized by action tendencies
3) Older children develop operational schemata, characterized by more abstract representations of cognition.

Front 503

Adaptation

Back 503

1) Takes place through 2 complementary processes: assimilation and accommodation

Front 504

Assimilation

Back 504

1) Process of interpreting new information based on existing schemata

Front 505

Accommodation

Back 505

1) Occurs when new information doesn't really fit with an existing schemata; the process of modifying existing schemata to adapt to this new information.

Front 506

Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development

Back 506

1) Sensorimotor
2) Preoperational
3) Concrete operational
4) Formal operational

Each stage is preparation for the following stage.

Front 507

Sensorimotor stage

Back 507

1) First stage- birth to 2 years.
2) Three important concepts: a) primarycircular reactions, b) secondary circular reactions, and c) object permanence.

Front 508

Primary & secondary circular reactions

Back 508

1) Infant begins to coordinate separate aspects of movement.
2) Advent of goal-oriented behavior.
3) Primary: Restricted to motions concerned with the body.
Ex. Infant hungry, sucks indiscriminately, trying to get satisfaction from putting something in mouth.
4: Secondary: Directed at manipulation of objects in environment

Front 509

Object permanence

Back 509

1) Realizes object exists when out of sight
2) Beginning of representational thought (mental representations of objects)

Front 510

Preoperational stage

Back 510

1) Second stage: 2-7 years old
2) Characterized by beginning of representational thought
3) Important features: centration, egoism
4) Conservation still developing

Front 511

Centration

Back 511

Tendency to only be able to focus on one aspect of a phenomenon.

Ex. Little girl can tell you she has a sister, but can't tell you if her sister has a sister.

Front 512

Egocentrism

Back 512

Inability to take the perspective of another person or understand that relationships are reciprocal.

Front 513

Conservation

Back 513

1) The notion that physical properties of matter do not change just because the appearance of the matter changes
2) Still developing in preoperational stage

Front 514

Concrete operational stage

Back 514

1) Third stage: 7-11 years
2) Child masters conservation
3) Can take perspective of others.
4) Difficulty with abstract thought.

Front 515

Formal operational

Back 515

1) Fourth stage: approach of adolescence
2) Can "think like a scientist"- think logically about abstract ideas.
3) Pendulum experiment- ask to manipulate pendulum and find out what determined the frequency of swing.
4) Only adolescents able to manipulate it systematically and determine only length of string affects frequency.

Front 516

Piaget's theory of relationship between language and cognition

Back 516

1) Believed development of thought directed development of language
2) How we use language depends on what cognitive stage we are in.

Front 517

Criticism of Piaget

Back 517

1) Used mainly case studies (clinical method)
2) Researchers have failed to find evidence of formal operations in adolescents and in non-technological cultures.

Front 518

Vygotsky

Back 518

1) Internalization of various interpersonal and cultural rules and processes that drives cognitive development in children.
2) Zone of proximal development- skills and abilities that are in process of development. Child needs guidance to develop those skills & abilities.

Front 519

4 components of language

Back 519

1) Phonology
2) Semantics
3) Syntax
4) Pragmatics

Front 520

Phonology

Back 520

1) Actual sound stem of language
2) Basic noises and sounds of speech

Front 521

Categorical perception

Back 521

1) Ability to to distinguish between differences in sound that do not denote differences in meaning and those differences in sound that do denote differences in meaning.

Front 522

Semantics

Back 522

1) Word meaning
2) Combinations of phonemes produce meaning.

Front 523

Syntax

Back 523

1) How words are put together in sentences.
2) Word order affects meaning.

Front 524

Pragmatics

Back 524

1) The efficient use of language

Front 525

Babbling

Back 525

1) Precursor to language
2) Spontaneously begins in first year (even in deaf children)

Front 526

Lenneberg, Rebelsky, &Nichols study (1965)

Back 526

1) Age babbling begins is same for hearing children w/hearing parents, deaf parents, and deaf children.
2) For hearing children, babbling continues and becomes most frequent between 9-12 months.
3) For dead children, babbling ceases soon after it begins.
(Petitto & Marenette, 1991- deaf babies may babble with hands)

Front 527

Gregor Mendel

Back 527

1) Initiated the study of genetics (Austrian monk)
2) Hypothesized existence of gene by observing inheritance of certain traits in pea plants.
3) Gene = basic units of heredity

Front 528

Mendelian Genetics

Back 528

1) Every gene is controlled by 2 alleles (alternative form of gene).
2) Alleles are either dominant or recessive

Front 529

Genotype

Back 529

The total genetic make up of an individual

Front 530

Phenotype

Back 530

Total collection of expressed traits that is the individuals observable characteristics.

Front 531

Chromosomes

Back 531

1) Contain all the genetic information of individuals (genes)
2) The nucleus of each cell in human body (except sperm & egg) contain 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 individual chromosomes)- they are diploid
3) Gametes (sex cells) are haploid- they only contain single chromosomes.
4) 23rd chromosome determine sex

Front 532

R.C. Tryon's study

Back 532

1) Studied inheritence of maze-running ability of laboratory rats.
2) Bred mice with other mice with same maze-running abilities.
3) EVIDENCE THAT LEARNING ABILITY HAS GENETIC COMPONENT

Front 533

Language acquisition

Back 533

1) 18 months- can utter many words, but one at a time
2) 2.5-3 years- children begin producing longer sentences
3) 5 years- language mastered

Front 534

Errors of growth

Back 534

1) as children begin to master complex general rules of language, their grammatical errors often increase.

Front 535

Chomsky

Back 535

1) Transformational grammar study
2) Syntactic transformations- changes in word ordering that differ with meaning
a) children do this effortlessly
3) language acquisition device- innate capacity for language that is triggered by exposure to language.
4) Critical period for language- between 2 and puberty

Front 536

Genie

Back 536

1) Abused child isolated form human contact from 2-13 years.
2) Could learn some aspects of syntax but not others,
3) Evidence for sensitive period for language (not critical)

Front 537

Sigmund Freud

Back 537

1) Human psychology and sexuality are linked.
2) Libido (sex drive) present at birth
3) Lidinal energy and drive to redice libidinal tension are driving forces for psychological processes.
4) 5 STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Front 538

5 Stages of psychosocial development

Back 538

1) Oral
2) Anal
3) Phallic
4) Latency
5) Genital

Each stage child faces conflict between societal demand and urge to reduce libidinal tension with body parts.

Fixation- when child is overindulge or overly frustrated in a stage . Child then forms personality pattern that persists into adulthood.

Front 539

Oral stage

Back 539

1) 0-1 years: gratification obtained by putting object in mouth and sucking.
2) Libidinal energy: centered around mouth
3) Fixation: adult would exhibit excessive dependency

Front 540

Anal stage

Back 540

1) 1-3 years
2) Libido centered on anus and gratification gained through elimination and retention of waste materials.
3) Fixation: lead to excessive orderliness or sloppiness in adulthood.

Front 541

Oedipal stage

Back 541

1) 3-5 years
2) Central tension: resolution of oedipal/electra conflict
3) Oedipal conflict- male envies fathers intimate relationship with mother and fears castration at hands of father. To resolve they identify with father,
4) Electra conflict- girl version of conflict.

Front 542

Latency stage

Back 542

1) Libido is large;y sublimated during this stage
2) Stage lasts until puberty is reached

Front 543

Genital stage

Back 543

1) Begins at puberty; lasts through adulthood
2) If previous stages have been successfully resolved, the person will enter into normal heterosexual relations

Front 544

Erik Erikson

Back 544

1) Psychosocial theory
2) Believed development occurred through resolutions of conflicts between needs and social demands
3) 8n important conflicts throughout development

Front 545

Psychosocial theory

Back 545

1) Development is a sequence of central life crises, each have a possible favorable or adverse outcome
2) Emphasizes emotional development and interaction with social environment

Front 546

Trust vs. mistrust

Back 546

1) (Erikson) First conflict, takes place is first year of life.
2) If resolved, child will trust environment and themself.
3) If mistrust prevails, child will be suspicious of world

Front 547

Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt

Back 547

1) (Erikson) Conflict #2: 1-3 years old.
2) Favorable outcome: feeling of will and ability to exercise choice and self-restraint.
3) Unfavorable outcome: sense of doubt and lack of control, what happens is due to external influences.

Front 548

Initiative versus guilt

Back 548

1) (Erikson) Conflict # 3: 3-6 years
2) Favorable outcome: ability to initiate activities & enjoy accomplishment
3) Unfavorable: overcome by fear of punishment so that child either restricts self or compensates by showing off.

Front 549

Industry vs. Inferiority

Back 549

1) (Erikson) Conflict 4: 6-12 year
2) Favorable: feels competent, able to exercise abilities and intelligence in world.
3) Unfavorable: Sense of inadequacy, low self-esteem

Front 550

Identity vs. role confusion

Back 550

1) (Erikson) Conflict 5: adolescence
2) Physiological revolution
3) Favorable: fidelity- ability to see oneself as unique & integrated person
4) Unfavorable: confusion with identity, amorphous personality shifts from day to day

Front 551

Intimacy vs. isolation

Back 551

1) (Erikson) Conflict 6: young adulthood.
2) Favorable: love, ability to have intimate relationships, commitment.
3) Unfavorable: avoidance of commitment, alienation. Either withdrawn or only capable of superficial relationships.

Front 552

Generativity vs. stagnation

Back 552

1) (Erikson) Conflict 7: Middle age
2) Favorable: Capable of being productive, caring member of society.
3) Unfavorable: Sense of stagnation, self-indulgent, bored and self-centered.

Front 553

Integrity vs. Despair

Back 553

1) (Erikson) Conflict 8: Old age
2) Reflect on life as with integrity or despair
3) Favorable: Wisdom- acceptance of life being worthwhile, ready to face death.
4) Unfavorable: bitterness, worthlessness, fear of death.

Front 554

Temperament

Back 554

1) Some consider central aspect of personality
2) Individual differences in responding to environment.
3) Somewhat heritable and stable over time.

Front 555

Thomas & Chess

Back 555

1) longitudinal study on temperament.
2) 3 categories of infant behavioral and emotional style: a) easy, slow to warm up, difficult

Front 556

Temperament research methods

Back 556

1) Temperament measured by: a) parental reports, b) observations in home, c) observations in laboratory

Front 557

Wolff

Back 557

1) Used spectrograms to determine 3 patterns of crying.
a) basic cry associated with hinger, b) angry cry associated with frustration, and c) pain cry, associated with painful stimulus
2) Infants learn caregivers respond to crying

Front 558

Social smiling

Back 558

1) face-like stimuli elicit smile.
2) By 5 months only familiar faces elicit a smile.

Front 559

Fear response

Back 559

1) At first, fear evoked through sudden change in level of stimulation.
2) By end of first year, fear response is reserved for the sudden absence of s specific individual or presence of a object or person that has been harmful.

Front 560

Harry Harlow

Back 560

1) Studied attachment in Rhesus monkeys separated from mothers.
2) Monkeys preferred terry-cloth mother (even though it didn't have food)- "contact comfort"
3) Monkeys that were raised in isolation became dysfunctional
4) "therapist monkeys"- monkeys that tried to bring dysfunctional monkeys back into society

Front 561

John Bowlby

Back 561

1) Identified phases of attachment process
a) preattachment phase- infant reacts identically to every adult and smiling face
b) phase 2- infant discriminates between familiar and non-familiar faces.
c) phase 3- infant seeks out and responds specifically to mother
d) phase 4- bonding intensifies, infant exhibits stranger anxiety
e) phase 5- (2 yrs old) child exhibits separation anxiety
f) phase 6- (3 years) child able to separate without prolonged distress.

Front 562

Mary Ainsworth

Back 562

1) Strange situation procedure- to study quality of parent-child attachment relationship
2) Three types of attachment:
Type A- insecure/avoidant attachment: not distressed, avoid contact on return.
Type B- Secure attachment: mild distress, greets upon return
Type C- Insecure/resistant attachment: distress during separation, resist physical contact when return

Front 563

Konrad Lorenz

Back 563

1) Ethologist studied imprinting
2) Imprinting: rapid formation of attachment bond between an organism and an object in the environment.
3) Imitated the strut of a jackdraw (bird), and infant jackdraw became attached to her and preferred humans to other jackdraws.

Front 564

Lawrence Kolberg's Stages

Back 564

1) Three stages of moral thought, each with 2 stages (total of 6 phases).
2) Phased associated with changes in cognitive structure

Front 565

Preconventional morality phase

Back 565

1) First phase of moral thought (Kolberg): Right & wrong defined by consequences of punishment and reinforcement.
2) Stage 1-Orientation toward punishment & obedience
3) Stage 2- instrumental relativism stage: orientation toward reciprocity.

Front 566

Conventional phase of morality

Back 566

1) Second phase of moral thought- based on social rules.
Stage 3- good girl, nice boy orientation: looking for approval from others
stage 4- law and order orientation: morality defined by rules of authority.

Front 567

Postconventional morality phase

Back 567

1) Phase 3 of moral thought
Stage 5- social contract orientation: moral rules are a convention designed to ensure greater good.
Stage 6- universal ethical principles

Front 568

The Heinz Dilemma

Back 568

1) Kolberg's test to determine moral level of an individual .
2) Given hypothetical situations and asked what character should do.
3) Heinz is a character who steals a drug to save his wife.
4) Answer isn't important, the thought process to determine answer is.

Front 569

Carol Gilligan's criticism

Back 569

1) Criticized Kolbergs moral phases, especially postconventional phase.
2) Males & females adopt diff perspectives on moral issues, which stem from the way they're raised.
3) Kolberg's research only done on males, doesn't apply to females.

Front 570

Carol Gilligan's theory

Back 570

1) Idea that women adopt an interpersonal orientation that isn't more/less mature than rule-bound thinking of men.
2) Women morality- focused on caring and compassion

Front 571

Kolberg's gender stages

Back 571

1) Cognitive developmental theory of self-conceptualization
2) three-stage theory: 1) gender labeling, 2) gender stability, 3) gender consistency

Front 572

Gender labeling

Back 572

1) First stage, 2-3 years old.
2) Children achieve gender identity: realize they're a member of particular sex.
3) Able to label others based on sex as well.

Front 573

Gender stability

Back 573

1) Second stage, 3-4 years
2) Children can predict they will still be a boy/girl when they grow up. Superficial judgement based on physical notion of gender.

Front 574

Gender Consistency

Back 574

1) Third stage, 4-7 years
2) Understand permanency of gender, regardless of what one wears or their behavior.

Front 575

Martin & Halverson

Back 575

1) Gender schematic processing theory (builds upon Kolberg's theory)
2) As soon as children can label themselves, they focus on behaviors that are associated with their gender, and less attention on those of opposite gender.

Front 576

Diana Baumrind

Back 576

1) Measured parental style & discipline
2) 3 distinct parenting styles:
a) authoritarian- punitive control, lacking warmth
b) authoritative- high demands for compliance, positive reinforcement, warm
c) permissive- score low on control/demand measures.

Front 577

Parenting styles effects on child behavior

Back 577

1) Children with authoritative parents characterized as being more socially and academically competent.
2) Children with authoritarian and permissive parents tend to have difficulties in school and peer relations.

Front 578

Fathers vs. Mothers

Back 578

1) Fathers play more vigorously with children than mothers.
2) Mothers tend to stress verbal over physical interaction.

Front 579

Edward Titchener
-What school of thought?
-What method did he use?
-Who was he trained by?
-What did his work inform/lead to?

Back 579

1) belonged to system of Structuralism
2) Used introspection- clients report on current conscious experiences.
3) He was a Wundt-trained psychologist.
4) His work spawned functionalism, behavioralism, and Gestalt psychology

Front 580

Structuralism

Back 580

1) Goal is to break down consciousness down into its elements or mental structures.

Front 581

Noam Chomsky
-Discipline
-Who he criticized?
-What did he argue?

Back 581

1) Linguist who criticized Skinner's idea that language was fostered through operant conditioning (reinforcement)
2) Since children say things that adults don't (errors in growth), language can't be due to reinforcement.

Front 582

Research methods in cognitive psychology

Back 582

1) Reaction time- time from stimulus to response
2) Eye movements- "on-line" measure of info process.
3) Brain imaging- associating cog. processes with parts of brain.

Front 583

Herman Ebbinghaus
-What did he study/ how?

Back 583

1) First to study memory- memorized nonsense syllables.
2) Method of savings- after memorizing an initial list of things, he compared the # of times he has to read the list to rememorize it.
3) Forgetting curve- measures how quickly we forget. W/o practice, we forget quickly. The at certain point, forgetting occurs at slower rate.

Front 584

Mental processes involved in memory

Back 584

1) Encoding- putting new info into memory
2) Storage- retaining info over time
3) Retrieval- recovery of stored material

Front 585

2 methods of retrieval

Back 585

1) Recall- independently reproducing info you have been exposed to (short answer/ fill in blank)
2) Recognition- realizing that a certain stimulus is one you've seen/heard before (multiple choice)

Front 586

Generation-recognition model

Back 586

1) Suggests a recall task taps same process for memory as recognition task. But recall requires extra processing step; generating info.

Front 587

Recency effect

Back 587

Remember most recent things the best.

Front 588

Primacy effect

Back 588

Remember first things better than middle, but not as good as most recent.

Front 589

Clustering

Back 589

1) When memorizing a list of things we cluster like items together and recall them in clusters.

Front 590

Stage theory of memory*

Back 590

1) There are several different memory systems and each system has a different function.
2) Memories enter the various system in a specific order.

Front 591

3 memory systems

Back 591

1) Sensory memory
2) short-term memory
3) long-term memory

Front 592

Sensory memory

Back 592

1) Contains fleeting impressions of sensory stimuli
2) Info does not last long, a few seconds.
3) Visual (iconic) memory & auditory (echoic) memory

Front 593

Whole-report procedure

Back 593

1) Used to determine how much info could be retained in sensory memory.
2) Subjects look at visual display for fraction of second and asked to recall as many things as possible.
4) People could remember 4 out of 9 items.

Front 594

Partial-report procedure

Back 594

1) Developed by George Sperling
2) Discovered sensory memory has a 9-item limit (not 4 item)
3) In whole-report procedure, their memory had decayed by the time they reached item 4.

Front 595

Short-term memory

Back 595

1) Information we attend to goes from sensory memory into short-term memory.
2) If nothing is done with memory, it only remains for about 20 seconds.
3) If info is rehearsed it can stay in short-term memory a longer time.

Front 596

Maintenance rehearsal

Back 596

1) When we rehearse information to keep it in short-term memory.

Ex. memorizing a phone number.

Front 597

George Miller

Back 597

1) Found that short-term memory can retain 7 (plus/minus 2) pieces or chunks of information.
2) Chunks are meaningful bits of information (ex. 1943 instead of 1 9 4 3)

Front 598

Long term memory

Back 598

1) Permanent storehouse of experiences, knowledge, & skills.
2) Can be stored briefly or last a lifetime.
3) Elaborative rehearsal helps us get info into long-term memory.
4) Two types: procedural & declarative memory

Front 599

Elaborative rehearsal

Back 599

Organizing information and associating it with information already in long-term memory.

Front 600

Procedural memory

Back 600

1) Remembering how things are done

Front 601

Declarative memory

Back 601

1) Where explicit/ factual information is stored.
2) Two types of declarative memory: a) semantic & episodic

Front 602

Semantic memory

Back 602

1) Remembering general knowledge, especially meaning of words and concepts.

Front 603

Episodic memory

Back 603

1) Memories for specific events or episodes you have experienced

Front 604

Encoding verbal material: short term vs. long term memory

Back 604

1) Short-term: encoding tends to be phonological or acoustic rather than visual.
Ex. People confuse letters that sound alike rather than those that look alike.

2) Long-term: encoded on basis of meaning.
- Supported by semantic priming tasks

Front 605

Semantic priming tasks

Back 605

1) Subject has to decide is stimulus is a word or non-word.
2) Subject presented with words that were semantically related (nurse-doctor), and those that weren't (nurse-butter)
3) Had to indicate if both words were real words.
4) Response time faster if words were related.

Front 606

Semantic verification task

Back 606

1) Used to study organization of semantic memory
2) Subjects asked to indicate if a statement is T/F
3) Response latency is measured.
-pattern of response latency can provide info on how semantic info is stored.

Front 607

Collins & Loftus
-What model do they propose?
-What does it state?

Back 607

1) Proposed spreading activation model:
2) The shorter the distance between 2 words, the closer they are related in semantic memory.
(Ex. Street-car vs. street-rose)

Front 608

Smith, Shoben & Rips

Back 608

1) Propose semantic feature-comparison model
2) Semantic memory contains sets of features that are either required or typical.
3) If there is a lot of overlap, or clearly no overlap, you will respond quickly.
Ex. Robin is a bird (quick), horse is a fish (quick), turkey is a bird (slower)

Front 609

Levels of processing theory (aka depth of processing theory)
-who proposed it?
-what does it challenge?
-what does it suggest?

Back 609

1) Proposed by Craik & Lockart to challenge stage theory of memory.
2) The way you process memory determines how long you will remember it (not the system that processes it)
3) only believe in 1 system of memory (rather than 4) Three ways to process information:
1) physical (visual)- least effort req.
2) Acoustical
3) Semantic- most effort req., remember better

Front 610

Paivio's dual-code hypothesis

Back 610

1) Theory of memory- information can be stored (encoded) visually or verbally.
2) Abstract info coded verbally
3) Concrete information coded visually (as image) & verbally
Ex. virtue will be encoded verbally (can't visualize a virtue)
Elephant encoded verbally & visually

Front 611

Schema(ta)

Back 611

1) Conceptual frameworks we use to organize our knowledge.
2) We interpret our experiences, & remember them in terms of an existing schema.
3) This can lead to distortions of our memories.
4) If we have tough time matching experience with existing schema, we'll have tough time remembering it.

Front 612

Decay theory

Back 612

1) Early explanation why we forget
2) If info in long-term memory isn't used/rehearsed, we'll forget.
3) Doesn't take new memory you have learned into consideration.

Front 613

Inhibition theory

Back 613

1) Suggests forgetting is due to the activities that have taken place between original learning and the attempted recall.
2) Two types of inhibition: a) retroactive and b) proactive

Front 614

Proactive inhibition

Back 614

1) What you learned earlier interferes with what you learned later.

Ex. Learn French, then learn spanish. French interferes with learning spanish.

Front 615

Retroactive inhibition

Back 615

1) When you forget what you learned earlier as you learn something new.

Ex. You learn list A, then list B. Now you can't remember list A.

Front 616

Encoding specificity

Back 616

1) Assumption that recall will be best is the context at recall approximates the context at original learning.
Ex. Going to take test in classroom, so you should study in classroom.

Front 617

State-dependent learning

Back 617

1) Recall will be better if your psychological/physical state at time of recall is same as when you learned it.

Front 618

Mnemonic devides
2 types:

Back 618

1) Techniques used to improve memory
a) Chunking
b) The method of loci- associating info with sequence of places you're familiar with. (Mr. Munda)

Front 619

Sir Frederick Bartlett
What did he study?
How did he study it?
What did he find?

Back 619

1) Studied memory using "the war of the ghosts" story
2) Found that prior knowledge and expectations influences recall*

Front 620

Elizabeth Loftus

Back 620

1) Studied eyewitness accounts.
2) Much of eyewitness accounts & testimonies can be erroneous

Front 621

Zeigarnik effect

Back 621

1) The tendency to remember incomplete tasks better than completed tasks.

Ex. easier to remember chores you haven't completed vs. those you have.

Front 622

Luchins water-jar problem
-what did it study?
-how did it study it?
-what was the finding?

Back 622

1) Used to study impediments on problem-solving
2) Subjects get 3 empty jars and list of capacities of each jar, and asked to obtain particular amount of water in one of jars.
3) Mental set- the tendency to solve a problem in a specific manner (past experience), can impede alternative effect problem solving strategies

Front 623

Functional fixedness

Back 623

1) Inability to use a familiar object in an unfamiliar way
2) This is an impediment to problem solving.

Front 624

Creativity

Back 624

1) Thought of as a cognitive ability that results in new ways of viewing problems or situations.
2) Little empirical evidence on this.

Front 625

Guilford's test of divergent thinking

Back 625

1) Attempt to measure creativity
2) Divergent thinking- producing as many creative answers to a question as possible.

Front 626

Kahneman & Tversky

Back 626

1) Studied how decision making goes awry
2) Humans use heuristics (short cuts/rules of thumb) to make decisions.
3) These heuristics can help and hinder good decision-making.

Front 627

Availability heuristic

Back 627

1) Used when we try to decide how likely something is.
2) Decision based on how easily similar instances can be imagined.

Front 628

Representativeness heuristic

Back 628

1) Categorizing things on the basis of whether they fit the stereotypical/prototypic representative image of the category.

Front 629

Base-rate fallacy

Back 629

1) Using prototypical stereotypical factors rather than actual numerical information about which category is more numerous.

Front 630

Language Development: learning theory vs. cognitive developmental theory

Back 630

1) Learning theory: language is learned through classical and operant conditioning and modeling.

2) Cognitive developmental theory: language has to do with child's capacity for symbolic thought, which develops at end of sensorimotor stage. Language continues to develop according to child's cognitive level.

Front 631

Chomsky's
-who did he criticize?
-What theory did he propose?
-What device did he propose?

Back 631

1) Criticized behaviorist view of language, proposed NATIVIST theory of language
2) Belief that there's an innate, biologically based mechanism for language acquisition.
3) Proposed language acquisition device (LAD)- built-in advanced knowledge of rule structures in language.

Front 632

Chomsky's grammatical structures (2)

Back 632

1) Surface structure- actual word order of words in sentence.
2) Deep/abstract structure- underlying form that specifies the meaning of the sentence.

Front 633

Transformational rules

Back 633

1) (Chomsky) Tells us how we can change one structure into another.

Ex. "The house is green" vs. "Is the house green?"

Front 634

Whorfian hypothesis (linguistic relativity hypothesis)

Back 634

1) Proposed by whorf
2) Suggests our perception of reality is determined by the content of language. (language affects way we think, not other way around)

Ex. Eskimo's have several words for snowflakes, english only has one. Therefore, eskimos are better at discriminating between different types of snow.

Front 635

Macoby & Jacklin

Back 635

1) Found evidence for better verbal abilities in girls.

Front 636

Spearman's view of intelligence

Back 636

1) Suggested individual differences in intelligence are largely due to variations in the amount of a general, unitary factor, which he called g.

Front 637

Primary mental abilities

Back 637

1) Identified by Thurstone
2) 7 abilities (e.g. verbal comprehension, number ability, perceptual speed)
3) Used factor analysis

Front 638

Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory

Back 638

1) suggests 3 aspects of intelligence:
a) Componential (e.g. performance on tests)
b) Experimental (creativity)
c) Contextual (street/business smarts)

Front 639

Howard Gardener's theory

Back 639

1) Theory of multiple intelligences:
2) 7 types- linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.
3) Argues western culture values first two the most (thats all we measure on IQ)

Front 640

Cattell's theory on intelligence

Back 640

1) Fluid intelligence- ability to quickly grasp relationships in novel situations and make correct deductions from them.
--gradually increases throughout childhood & adolescence, , levels at young adulthood, then decreases.

2) Crystalized intelligence- ability to understand or solve problems based on knowledge acquired as a result of schooling or life experiences.
--increases throughout lifespan

Front 641

Arthur Jensen

Back 641

1) Educational psychologist who studied intelligence.
2) Intelligence as measured by IQ is genetic, can't be taught.
3) Provoked controversy by looking at IQ between races.

Front 642

McClelland & Rumelhart

Back 642

1) Published book about parallel distributed processes( PDP)
2) Proposed information processing is distributed across the brain and done in a parallel fashion.

Front 643

Metacognition

Back 643

A person's ability to think about and monitor cognition.

Front 644

Metamemory

Back 644

Person's ability to think about and monitor memory

Front 645

Sir Francis Galton

Back 645

1) One of first interested in individual differences
2) Measured sensory abilities in nearly 10,000 people.

Front 646

Max Wertheimer

Back 646

1) Founded Gestalt psychology
2) Concluded that the experience of visual illusion has a wholeness about it that is different than the sum of its parts.
3) Believed (like other gestalt psych.) that studying experiences in parts is not a valid way of studying conscious experience.

Front 647

Psychophysics

Back 647

1) Concerned with measuring the relationship between physical stimuli and psychological responses to the stimuli

Front 648

Absolute threshold*

Back 648

1) The minimum of stimulus needed to activate a sensory system.
2) Amount of stimulus a person can perceive.

Front 649

Subliminal perception

Back 649

1) perception of stimuli below a threshold of consciousness
2) limen = threshold

Front 650

Difference threshold

Back 650

1) Concerned with how different two stimuli (in magnitude) must be before they're perceived as different.
2) Compare a) standard stimulus to b) comparison stimulus.
3) Average and subtract difference between the two, to determine difference threshold.
4) The ratio is more important than the amount.
Ex. Comparing 100 ounce weight. Difference threshold is 2 ounces. Can distinguish difference at 98 and 102 ounces.

Front 651

Just noticeable difference (JND)

Back 651

1) One jnd needs to be added or subtracted from a stimulus for a person to say that they notice the difference.
2)Measures same thing as difference threshold but in different units.
3) The amount of change needed to predict the difference between two stimuli.

Ex. difference threshold = 2 ounces
1 jnd = 2 ounces.
2 jnd = 4 ounces

Front 652

Weber's law

Back 652

1) The change in stimulus intensity needed to produce a jnd divided by the stimulus intensity of the standard stimulus is a constant.
2) What's important in producing a jnd is not the absolute difference between the two stimuli, but the ration of them.
3)Expressed as ? I/I = K.? or ? S/S = K.

Front 653

Webers fraction/constant

Back 653

1) The constant in weber's law
2) The smaller the K, the better the sensitivity

Front 654

Fechner's law

Back 654

1) Expresses the relationship between the intensity of a sensation and the intensity of the stimulus.
2) The sensation increases more slowly as intensity increases.

Front 655

Steven's power law

Back 655

1) Relates to the intensity of the stimulus to the intensity of sensation.
2) Steven's proposed this equation instead of Fechner's law.

Front 656

Signal detection theory

Back 656

1) Suggests other, non-sensory factors influence what a person says they perceive.
2) These include experiences, motives, and expectations.

Ex. cautious person may want to be 100% certain before they say they perceived something.

Front 657

Response bias

Back 657

1) Tendency of subjects to respond in a particular way due to non-sensory factors.

Front 658

Sensitivity

Back 658

Measures how well a subject can sense the stimulus.

Front 659

Receiver operating characteristics (ROC) Curve

Back 659

1) Used to graphically summarize a subjects responses in a signal detection experiment.
2) John Swets refined the use of these.

Front 660

Reception

Back 660

1) First step in all sensory information processing
2) Each sensory system has receptors to react to physical external energy.

Front 661

Transduction

Back 661

1) Second step in sensory processing
2) Translation of physical energy into neural impulses or action potentials.

Front 662

Projection areas

Back 662

1) Brain areas that further analyze sensory input.
2) Electrochemical energy is sent to various projection areas in brain along with neural pathways and can be processed in nervous system.

Front 663

Structure of eye:

Back 663

1) Cornea- clear, dome-like window in front of eye. Gathers and focuses incoming light.
2) Pupil- Hole in the iris. Contracts in bright, expands in dark.
3) Iris- colored part of eye. Has involuntary muscles and autonomic nerve fibers. Controls size of pupil.
4) Lens- helps control curvature of the light coming in and can focus near or distant objects on the retina.
5) Retina- in back of eye and is like a screen filled with neural elements and blood vessels. image-detecting part of eye.

Front 664

Duplexity/ duplicity theory of vision

Back 664

1) States the retina contain two types of photoreceptors.
2) Organization of the retinal cells makes light pass through intermediate sensory neurons before reaching, and stimulating the photoreceptors.
3) There is a blind spot where the optic nerve leaves the eye, and no photoreceptors are.

Front 665

Cones

Back 665

1) Receptors used for color vision and for perceiving fine detail.
2) Most effective in bright light and allow us to see chromatic and achromatic colors.
3) Fovea contains only cones.

Front 666

Rods

Back 666

1) Function best in low light.
2) Allow us to see achromatic colors.
3) Have low sensitivity to detail and aren't involved in color vision.
4) More rods than cones in eye.
5) At periphery of retina, there are only rods.

Front 667

Connection of rods & cones to optic nerve

Back 667

1) Connection is not direct:

Rods/Cones -> bipolar neurons -> ganglion cells-> ganglion cells group to form optic nerve.

Front 668

Ganglion cells

Back 668

1) There are many more rods/cones than ganglion cells.
2) They have to represent combined activity of many rods & cones.
3) Results in a loss of detail.
4) Cones have greater sensitivity to fine detail because there are less cones that converge onto a single ganglion cell.

Front 669

Projection of stimulus in eye

Back 669

1) Visual stimuli is projected to opposite side of eye
2) Stimuli in the right side of the visual field are projected to the left side of the retina.
3) Stimuli in the left side of the visual field is projected to the right side of retina.

Front 670

Visual pathways in brain

Back 670

Study figure on 180

Front 671

Optic chiasm

Back 671

1) Part of the brain where optic nerves partially cross
-nasal fibers cross
-temporal fibers don't

Front 672

Nasal fibers

Back 672

1) Fibers from nasal half of the retina (closer to nose) cross paths.
a)nasal fibers from right eye go to left side of brain
b) nasal fibers from left eye go to right side of brain.

Front 673

Temporal fibers

Back 673

1) Fibers from the temporal halves of the retina (away from the nose, closer to the temples).
a) temporal fibers from left eye go to left side of brain.
b) temporal fibers from right eye go to right side of brain.

Front 674

Visual info processing in brain

Back 674

1) All information from left visual field in both eyes is processed in the right cerebral hemisphere.
2) All information from right visual field of each eye is processed in the left cerebral hemisphere.

Front 675

Where does visual information go from the optic chiasm? (3 places)*

Back 675

1) Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus
2) Visual cortex in occipital lobe
3)Superior colliculus

Front 676

Hubel & Wiesel

Back 676

1) Nobel prize for work on visual cortex
2) Found neural basis for feature detection theory
3) Distinguished 3 types of cells: a) simple, b) complex, and c) hypercomplex
4) Measured cell response using single-cell recording (recoding from single nerve fibers)

Front 677

Feature detection theory

Back 677

1) Suggests certain cells in the cortex are maximally sensitive to certain features of stimuli.

Front 678

Simple cells
-what information do they provide? (2)

Back 678

1) Their response to stimuli give information about the ORIENTATION and BOUNDARIES of the object.

Front 679

Complex cells
-What info do they provide? (1)

Back 679

1) Their response to stimuli give more advanced information about orientation, such as MOVEMENT.

Front 680

Hypercomplex cells

Back 680

1) Their response to stimuli give information about more abstract concepts, such as object SHAPE.

Front 681

Illumination

Back 681

1) Is a physical, objective measurement that is the amount of light falling on a surface.

Front 682

Brightness
- What is it?
-What affects our perception of brightness?

Back 682

1) Is a subjective impression of the intensity of a light stimulus.
2) Factors involved in how we perceive brightness: a) adaptation, b) Stimulus brightness contrast

Front 683

Dark adaptation (related to brightness)

Back 683

1) Light reaching the photoreceptors before you enter a dark room bleach the photopigment in the rods.
2) This causes rhodopsin to split into retinene and opsin.
3) After bleaching, rhodopsin begins to regenerate and you begin to see better.

Front 684

Rhodopsin

Back 684

1) The only photopigment that rods have.
2) Made up of:
a) Retinal- a vitamin A derivative
b) Opsin- a protein

Front 685

Bleaching

Back 685

1) When a molecule of rhodopsin absorbs a photon of light, the pigment begins to decompose, or split, into retinene and opsin.

Front 686

Light adaptation

Back 686

1) When you enter an area that is brighter and eyes adapt.
2) Little is known about this physiological process.

Front 687

Simultaneous brightness contrast

Back 687

1) Important in brightness perception
2) A target area of a particular luminance looks brighter when surrounded by a darker stimulus than when surrounded by lighter stimulus.
3) Explanation: lateral inhibition

Front 688

Lateral inhibition

Back 688

1) Adjacent retinal cells inhibit one another
-If a cell is excited, the neighboring cells will be inhibited.
2) It sharpens and highlights the borders between dark and light areas.

Front 689

Color perception

Back 689

1) Is related to the wavelength of the light entering the eye.
2) Color and light are related.

Front 690

Subtractive color mixture

Back 690

1) Occurs when we mix pigments.
Ex. blue and yellow make green

Front 691

Additive color mixing

Back 691

1) Has to do with lights.
2) If a stimulus does not emit its own light, we perceive it by processing the light that is reflected off of it.
3) Primary colors: red, blue, and green.

Ex. apple appears red because the wavelengths that appear red to us are reflected off of it while all other wavelengths are absorbed.

Front 692

Young-Helmholtz theory (trichromatic theory)

Back 692

1) Suggests we have 3 types of color receptors (cones) that are sensitive to either red, blue, or green.
2) The ratio of activity in the receptors determines the color we perceive.
3) You can mix the primary lights and produce all colors on the spectrum
4) This theory later proven to be true.

Front 693

Opponent-process theory of color vision

Back 693

1) Derived from Ewald Hering's criticism of the trichromatic theory.
2) There are three opposing pairs of colors.
- red-green, yellow-blue, and black-white.
3) They are arranged in opposing pairs.
4) This theory later proven false for color perception, but applied to LGN in thalamus.

Front 694

Afterimages

Back 694

1) A visual sensation that appears after prolonged or intense exposure to a stimulus.
Ex. If you stare at red square for a while, when you look away you will see a green square.

2) This is what influences Hering's theory of opposite processing.

Front 695

Depth perception

Back 695

1) George Berkeley explained much of how we perceive depth.
2) Image on our retina is only 2-dimensional
3) There are several different cues that allow for depth perception.

Front 696

Interposition (aka overlap)

Back 696

1) Refers to the cue for depth perception when one object (A) covers or overlaps with object (B).
2) We see object A as being in front.

Front 697

Relative size

Back 697

1) Another cue for depth perception
2) As an object gets farther away, its image on the retina gets smaller.

Front 698

Linear perspective

Back 698

1) Cue for depth perception
2) Refers to the convergence of parallel lines in the distance.
3) Since you know lines don't actually converge, you use this cue in forming your impression of depth.

Front 699

Texture gradients

Back 699

1) Depth perception cue, proposed by JJ Gibson
2) Refer to the variations in perceived surface texture as a function of the distance from the observer.
3) More distant parts appear to have smaller, more densely packed elements.

Front 700

Motion parallax

Back 700

1) The variation of apparent speed and motion of objects near our fixation point when we are moving.

2) Kinetic depth effect- when an object, rather than the perceiver moves, the motion of the object gives us cues about depth.

Front 701

Binocular disparity (stereopsis)

Back 701

1) Distance between our eyes provides us with disparate views.
2) When brain combines 2 views, we get a perception of depth.
3) This is the only depth cue that requires use of 2 eyes. (binocular depth cue)

Front 702

Binocular parallax

Back 702

1) The degree of disparity between the retinal images of the eye due to the slight differences in horizontal position of each eye in the skull.

Front 703

Stereoscope

Back 703

1) Tool used in stereopsis research
2) Give the impression of depth to a flat picture by presenting to each eye a separate and slightly different picture.

Front 704

Perception of form

Back 704

1) Perceptual objects exist only in our mind and not in the retinal image.
2) Important concepts:
a) figure- the integrated visual experience that stands out at the center of attention
b) ground- the background against which the figure appears.

Front 705

Five laws of form perception
(Gestalt psychology)

Back 705

1) Proximity
2) Similarity
3) Good continuation
4) Closure
5) Pragnanz

Front 706

Law of proximity

Back 706

Elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit.

Front 707

Law of similarity

Back 707

Elements that are similar to one another tend to be grouped together.

Front 708

Law of good continuum

Back 708

Elements that appear to follow in the same direction are grouped together.

Front 709

Subjective contours

Back 709

Have to do with perceiving contours, and therefore, shapes, that are not present in visual stimulus.

Front 710

Closure

Back 710

The tendency to see incomplete figures as complete

Front 711

Law of Pragnanz

Back 711

1) Encompasses the other laws and says that perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible.

Front 712

Wolfgang Kohler

Back 712

1) Addresses how figure-ground configurations are represented in brain.
2) Gestalt psychologist
3) Theory of isomorphism

Front 713

Theory of isomorphism

Back 713

1) Suggests a 1 to 1 ratio correspondence between the object in the perceptual field and the pattern of stimulation in the brain
- Based on Gestalt psychology

Front 714

Two major types of psychological processing

Back 714

1) Bottom-up processing (data-driven)
2) Top down processing (conceptually driven)

This type of processing is relevant to all senses, not just vision.

Front 715

Bottom-up processing

Back 715

1) Object perception that responds directly to the components of incoming stimulus on the basis of fixed rules.
2) It then sums up the components to arrive at the whole pattern (such as in feature detection)

Front 716

Top-down processing

Back 716

1) Object perception that is guided by conceptual processed such as memories and expectations that allow the brain to recognize the whole object and then recognize the components.

Front 717

5 ways to make a light look like it's moving

Back 717

1) real motion
2) apparent motion
3) induced motion
4) autokinetic effect
5) motion aftereffect

Front 718

Real motion

Back 718

involves actually moving the light

Front 719

Apparent motion (phi phenomenon)

Back 719

Illusion that appears when two dots flashed in different locations on a screen seconds apart are perceived as one moving dot.

Front 720

Induced motion

Back 720

A stationary point of light appears to move when the background moves.

Front 721

Autokinetic effect

Back 721

1) A stationary point of light, when viewed in an otherwise completely dark room, appears to move.
2) Probably caused by involuntary eye movements.

Front 722

Motion aftereffect

Back 722

If a moving object is viewed for an extended period of time, it will appear to move in an opposite direction when the motion stops.

Front 723

Proximal stimuli

Back 723

1) The visual information our sensory receptors receive about the object.
-The image on the retina.

Front 724

Distal stimuli

Back 724

1) The actual object or event out there in the world
2) The task of perception is to appropriately perceive this stimuli.

Front 725

4 major constancy's in visual perception

Back 725

1) Size constancy
2) Shape constancy
3) Lightness constancy
4) Color constancy

Front 726

Size constancy

Back 726

1) Maintenance of size constancy depends on perceived distance.
2) As it becomes harder to determine distance of object from observer, size constancy diminished.

Front 727

Emmert's law

Back 727

1) Describes the relationship between size constancy and apparent distance.
2) Led to size-distance invariance principle: size constancy depends on apparent size.

Front 728

Ames room

Back 728

1) Illusion in the structure of the room that makes one person look a lot larger than the other.
-Example of inappropriate size constancy

Front 729

Moon illusion

Back 729

The moon at the horizon appears larger than when it's at its zenith

Front 730

Shape constancy

Back 730

1) The shape of an object remains constant to us, even though when you manipulate the object its shape on our retina may change.

Front 731

Lightness constancy

Back 731

Tendency for the perceived lightness of an object to remain constant despite changes in illumination

Front 732

Color constancy

Back 732

Tendency for the perceived color of an object to remain constant despite changes in the spectrum of light falling on it.

Front 733

Illusion

Back 733

An erroneous percept

-Study visual illusion picture on phone

Front 734

Reversible figure

Back 734

1) A visual illusion in which two alternative, equally compelling perceptual organizations spontaneously oscillate.

2) Necker cube (on 194) is an example of this.

Front 735

Perception & Experience

Back 735

1) Over time we develop perceptual sets that make perception, or top-down processing, easier.

Front 736

Preferential looking

Back 736

1) Designed by Fantz to study visual perception in infants.
2) 2 different stimuli are presented together, time spent looking at each is recorded.
3) If there's a difference, its inferred infant can discriminate between the 2.
4) prefer the one they look at longest (prefer to look at relatively complex & socially relevant stimuli like a face)

Front 737

Habituation method

Back 737

1) Present stimuli to infant until they're habituated and lose interest.
2) Present 2nd stimuli. If infant can discriminate they will look at 2nd stimuli. If not, they'll be disinterested.

Front 738

Infant perceptive abilities

Back 738

1) At birth, unable to discern fine details.
2) At birth, can follow object/light places in center of their visual field.
3) Newborns can perceive: color, simple figures, sharp contrast, & dim light.

Front 739

Visual cliff

Back 739

1) Developed by Gibson & Walk to see if infant can perceive depth.
2) At 6 months old infants wont attempt to cross.

Front 740

Animal experiments of infant visual perception

Back 740

1) Sometimes used to assess contributions of nature and nurture to the development of vision.
2) Find that experience plays a role, and there are sensitive periods.

Front 741

Frequency

Back 741

1) The number of cycles per second
2) Measured in units of Hertz (Hz)
3) The shorter the wavelength the higher the frequency

Front 742

Intensity

Back 742

1) The amplitude, or height of the air pressure wave.
2) Measured in decibels
3) The more decibels, the noisier the sound.
4) Related to loudness.

Front 743

Subjective dimensions of sound:

Back 743

1) Loudness
2) Pitch
3) Timbre

Front 744

Loudness

Back 744

The subjective experience of magnitude and intensity of sound.

Front 745

Pitch

Back 745

1) The subjective experience or perception of the frequency of the sound.
2) It's what distinguishes between a low and high tone.

Front 746

Timbre

Back 746

1) The quality of a particular sound.

Ex. Same not played on the piano vs. clarinet.

Front 747

Outer ear

Back 747

1) pinna
2) auditory canal

Front 748

Pinna

Back 748

1) Fleshy part of ear visible from outside
2) Sound wave reaches here first
3) Main fxn: to channel sound waves into the auditory canal

Front 749

Auditory canal

Back 749

Channels sound wave to ear drum

Front 750

Eardrum/ Tympanic membrane

Back 750

1) Vibrates in phase with incoming sound waves.

Front 751

Middle Ear

Back 751

1) Contains 3 ossicles (tiny bones):
a) Hammer (malleus)
b) Anvil (incus)
c) Stirrup (stapes)
2) These transmit vibrations to inner ear

Front 752

Oval window

Back 752

1) entrance to inner ear.

Front 753

Cochlear

Back 753

1) Located in inner ear
2) Filled with cochlear fluid (salt-water like fluid)

Front 754

Basilar membrane

Back 754

1) Runs the length of the cochlea

Front 755

Organ of Corti

Back 755

1) rests on the basilar membrane along its entire length.
2) Composed of thousands of hair cells, they are receptors for hearing.
3) The bending of hair cells is transduced into electrical charges.
4) Signal is transmitted to nerve fiber, then to auditory fiber.

Front 756

Auditory pathways in brain

Back 756

1) Auditory nerve projects to:
a) superior olive
b) inferior colliculus
c) medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) in thalamus
d) temporal cortex

Front 757

Place-resonance theory of pitch

Back 757

1) Proposed by Helmholtz and Young
2) Each different pitch causes a different place on the basilar membrane to vibrate.
3) This then causes different hair cells to bend.

Front 758

Frequency theory

Back 758

1) Suggests basilar membrane vibrates as a whole, & rate of vibration equals the frequency of the stimulus.
2) Pitch is determined by frequency of nerve impulses traveling up auditory nerve.
3) Doesn't apply to tones above 1,000 Hz, Wever & Bray modified by proposing volley principle.
4) Volley principle- Higher rates of neural firing can be maintained if nerve fibers work together.

Front 759

Von Bekesy

Back 759

1) Proposed Bekesy's traveling wave theory
2) Movement of the basilar membrane is is maximal at a different place along basilar membrane for each different frequency.

Front 760

Summary of pitch theories

Back 760

1) Frequency theories: operative for tones up to 500 Hz
2) Place theory- operative for tones higher than 4,000 Hz
3) Both are operative between 500-4,000

Front 761

Taste

Back 761

1) Is a chemical sense
2) Receptors: taste buds, found on buds of tongue call papillae
3) Travels to taste center in thalamus

Front 762

Smell

Back 762

1) is a chemical sense
2) Smell receptors are in the olfactory epithelium
3) Smell info travels to olfactory bulb in brain

Front 763

Four categories of touch
(Doesn't seem important)

Back 763

1) Pressure
2) Pain
3) Warmth
4) Cold

Front 764

5 receptors to receive touch info
(Doesn't seem important)

Back 764

1) Pacinian Corpuscles (deep pressure)
2) Meissner Corpuscles (touch)
3) Merkle Discs
4) Ruffini Endings (warmth)
5) Free nerve endings

Info travels to somatosensory cortex in parietal lobe.

Front 765

Two-point threshold

Back 765

The minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli

Front 766

Physiological zero

Back 766

A neutral temperature perceived to be neither hot nor cold

Front 767

Gate theory of pain

Back 767

1) Theory that there is a gating mechanism in the spinal cord that turns pain signals on and off.

2) Melzach & Wall

Front 768

Proprioception

Back 768

Term for our sense of bodily perception and includes vestibular and kinesthetic senses.

Front 769

Vestibular sense

Back 769

1) Has to do with our sense of balance and our bodily position relative to gravity.
2) Receptors for balance are in inner ear.

Front 770

Kinesthetic sense

Back 770

1) Has to do with the awareness of body movement and position; specifically with muscle, tendon, and joint position.

Front 771

Important brain structures for vision

Back 771

1) LGN in thalamus
2) Superior Colliculus
3) Visual cortex in occipital lobe

Front 772

Important brain structures in audition

Back 772

1) MGN in thalamus
2) Inferior colliculus
3) Auditory cortex in temporal lobe

Front 773

Important brain structures in touch

Back 773

1) Somatosensory cortex

Front 774

Selective Attention (Broadbent)

Back 774

1) Proposed it acts as a filter between sensory stimuli and our processing systems.
2) All or nothing process- if we attend to something we don't attend to anything else. (later proved false)

Front 775

Cocktail party phenomenon

Back 775

1) Can attend to something you're interested in while not completely ignoring background noise.

Front 776

Dichotic listening

Back 776

1) Used to study selective attention
2) Two ears simultaneously presented with different messages.
3) Observers attend to one message and dampen out the other.

Front 777

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Back 777

1) Performance is worse at extremely low and extremely high arousal states.
2) Optimal at intermediate level.

Front 778

Edward Thorndike

Back 778

1) Functionalist & early behaviorist
2) Developed Law of Effect- this formed the basis for operant conditioning

Front 779

John Watson

Back 779

1) Conducted experiment with 11 month old, little Albert.
2) Used classical conditioning to make him fear lab rats which was generalized to bunnies and even a coat

Front 780

Theory of Motivation (Drive-reduction theory)

Back 780

1) Clark Hull
2) Suggests the goal of behavior is to reduce biological drive; reinforcement is produced whenever biological drive is reduced.

Front 781

Konrad Lorenz

Back 781

1) His work influenced the beginning of ethology as a recognized discipline.
2) Argued animals behavior couldn't be studied in lab.
3) Studied animals in the field and analyzed function of their behavior.

Front 782

Ethologists

Back 782

Study animals in their natural environment

Front 783

Classical conditioning (respondent conditioning)

Back 783

1) Result of learning connections between different events.
2) Ivan Pavlov is founder of basic principles.

Front 784

Salivation experiment

Back 784

1) Ivan Pavlov
2) Associated the neutral stimulus (a bell) with the presentation of food.
3) Eventually dog salivated to bell.

Front 785

Unconditioned stimulus

Back 785

A stimulus that can reflexively elicit a response

Front 786

Unconditioned response

Back 786

A response reflexively elicited by an unconditioned stimulus

Front 787

Conditioned stimulus

Back 787

A stimulus that, after conditioning, is able to elicit a nonreflexive response.

Front 788

Conditioned response

Back 788

A response that, after conditioning, is elicited by a conditioned stimulus

Front 789

Forward conditioning

Back 789

1) Presenting the CS before the unconditioned stimulus

Front 790

Acquisition

Back 790

There period in which an organism is learning the association of a stimuli

Front 791

Extinction

Back 791

1) The process by which conditioning is unlearned
2) Repeatedly presenting the CS without the UCS.

Front 792

Spontaneous recovery

Back 792

1) After extinction, presenting the CS without the UCS will still elicit a weak CR.

Front 793

Generalization

Back 793

Tendency for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit the CR as well.

Front 794

Second-order conditioning

Back 794

1) Expands the usefulness of conditioning in humans
2) Neutral stimulus is paired with CS (rather than UCS)
Stage 1: regular classical conditioning
Stage 2: Present new UCS, just before CS without pairing with the original UCS (food).

Front 795

Sensory preconditioning

Back 795

1) Two neutral stimuli are paired together, then one of the neutral stimuli are paired with an UCS.
Stage 1: Pair 2 neutral stimuli
Stage 2: Pair on neutral stimuli with UCR. After those are paired, you can present second neutral stimuli and they will show UCR without having to pair them.

Front 796

Robert Rescorla

Back 796

1) Contingency explanation of classical conditioning.
2) Experiments suggested classical conditioning was a matter of learning signals for the UCS.
3) As long as CS is a good signal/ predictor of UCS

Front 797

Blocking

Back 797

1) CS is a good predictor of UCS and provides nonredundant information about the occurrence of the UCS.

Ex. rats showed fear to hissing but not to light because the light didn't add any additional information (was redundant).

Front 798

Operant Conditioning (instrumental conditioning)

Back 798

1) Based on learning the relationship between ones actions and the consequences.

Front 799

Law of effect

Back 799

1) E.L. Thorndike
2) If a response if followed by an annoying consequence, the animal will be less likely to repeat the response in the future.

Front 800

B.F. Skinner

Back 800

1) Further developed operant conditioning
2) Distinguished 4 concepts: a) positive reinforcement, b) negative reinforcement, c) punishment, and d) extinction

Front 801

Positive reinforcement

Back 801

1) Behavior is rewarded
2) Increases probability

Front 802

Negative reinforcement

Back 802

1) Probability of behavior increased by removing an aversive consequence.

Front 803

Escape

Back 803

1) Type of negative reinforcement
2) Behavior removes something undesirable
3) Increases probability of behavior.

Front 804

Avoidance

Back 804

1) Type of negative reinforcement
2) Behavior avoids something undesirable
3) Increases probability of behavior

Front 805

Punishment

Back 805

1) Behavior causes something undesirable
2) Decreases probability of behavior

Front 806

Extinction

Back 806

1) Behavior that used to bring reward no longer does
2) Decreases probability

Front 807

Discriminative stimulus (SD)

Back 807

1) A stimulus condition that indicates the organisms behavior will have consequences.

Ex. Pigeon pecks lever and gets food. But the pigeon only gets reinforced with food when it pecks the lever while a light is on. The light is the SD

Front 808

Partial reinforcement effect

Back 808

1) Only reinforcing behavior occasionally.
2) Extinction takes longer when you do this.

Ex. Gambling

Front 809

Types of partial reinforcement: (4)

Back 809

1) fixed-ratio (FR)- fixed # of responses
2) variable-ratio (VR)- variable # of responses
3) fixed interval (FI)- fixed interval of time
4) variable interval (VI)- variable interval of time

Front 810

Continuous reinforcement schedule

Back 810

1) Reinforcement after every response.

Front 811

Partial reinforcement schedule that's most resistant to extinction

Back 811

1) Variable ratio (very resistant- VR)

Also produces most rapid response rate.

Front 812

Shaping

Back 812

1) Reinforce successive approximations to the desired behavior.

Front 813

Differential reinforcement

Back 813

1) Technique whereby you reinforce the desired response while extinguishing others.
2) Shaping is an example of this.

Front 814

Classical conditioning behavioral therapies

Back 814

1) Used primarily with phobias
2) Can also be used with OCD
3) Often use extinction

Front 815

Flooding

Back 815

Forcing client to directly experience the feared object (the CS)

Front 816

Implosion

Back 816

Forcing the client to imagine the feared object (the CS)

Front 817

Systematic desensitization

Back 817

1) Joseph Wolpe
2) Forcing the client to imagine the feared object (the CS) while trying to ensure that the client stays relaxed by using deep relaxation and an anxiety hierarchy
3) Counter-conditioning

Front 818

Conditioned aversion

Back 818

1) Used when client is used when the client is attracted to a behavior that is undesirable.
2) Pairing a desired CS with an aversive UCS.

Front 819

Contingency management

Back 819

1) Behavioral therapy that utilizes operant conditioning
2) Includes: behavioral contracts, time-out procedures, token economies, and Premack principles

Front 820

Behavioral contract

Back 820

1) A written agreement that explicitly states the consequences of certain acts; useful in resolving interpersonal conflicts

Front 821

Time-out

Back 821

Removing the client from the potentially reinforcing situation before he can receive reinforcement for the undesirable behavior.

Front 822

Premack Principle

Back 822

Using a more preferred activity to reinforce a less preferred activity

Ex. use playing to reinforce doing HW.

Front 823

Token Economies

Back 823

Are given for desirable behaviors and taken away for undesirable behaviors.

Front 824

Puzzle box

Back 824

1) Thorndike put cat in puzzle box and had it learn to escape by pressing level.
2) Argued it was trial and error that led to it escaping

Front 825

Wolfgang Kohler
(Cofounder of Gestalt psych)

Back 825

1) Disagreed with Thorndike. Animals only learned through trial and error because they were forced into it.
2) Argued animals could learn through insight.
3) Experiment where chimps used insight to solve problem of reaching food that was out of reach.

Front 826

Edward Tolman

Back 826

1) Cognitive map- a mental representation of a physical space
2) Showed rats could use cognitive map to find an alternative route in a maze.

Front 827

Biological constraints

Back 827

1) Different species have inborn dispositions to learn different things in different ways.
2) This idea used to challenge behaviorist theories

Front 828

Garcia Effect

Back 828

1) Discovered by John Garcia
2) 2 groups of their rats were conditioned and 2 weren't.
3) Demonstrated preparedness- rats are biologically wired to associate illness with something they ingested and pair sights and sounds with externally induced pain.

Front 829

Preparedness

Back 829

1) Garcia
2) Animals are prepared to learn connections between certain stimuli

Front 830

Taste aversion studies

Back 830

1) Pose challenge for classical conditioning.
2) CS can be paired with UCS after only 1 trial. It's supposed to take much more.
3) UCS can occur up to 24 hours later and association will still occur- usually link should happen after seconds.

Ex. Getting sick the next day after eating a food once.

Front 831

Instinctual drift

Back 831

1) The Brelands
2) Instinctual ways of behaving are able to override behaviors learned through operant conditioning.

Ex. couldn't train raccoons to put 2 coins in piggy bank because instincts stopped them

Front 832

Observational learning

Back 832

1) Bandura
2) Observing others behavior can affect your own behavior

Front 833

Species-specific/ species typical behaviors

Back 833

1) Behaviors that are characteristic of a particular species.
2) Ethologists are very interested in these.

Front 834

Fixed-action pattern (FAP)

Back 834

1) A stereotyped behavior sequence that does not have to be learned by the animal

2) These are more complex than Pavlovs UCS like salivating.
Ex. species-typical courtship rituals

Front 835

Sign stimuli

Back 835

1) Features of a stimuli sufficient enough to bring out a specific FAP
2) FAP's usually only have 1 sign stimuli or releaser that triggers them.

Front 836

Releaser

Back 836

1) A sign stimulus that triggers social behaviors from one animal to another.
2) It's a particular environmental stimulus that sets off a specific behavior.

Front 837

Supernormal stimulus

Back 837

A model more effective at triggering the FAP than the actual sign stimulus found in nature

Front 838

Innate releasing mechanism (IRM)

Back 838

1) A mechanism in the animal's nervous system that connects sign stimuli with the correct FAPs
2) The FAP follows automatically once the sign stimuli is presented

Front 839

Niko Tinbergen's experiment on aggression

Back 839

1) Male sticklebacks will attack other males that come into their territory during mating season.
2) The red belly of of the fish was both a sign stimulus and releaser.

Front 840

Reproductive isolating mechanisms

Back 840

1) Behaviors that prevent animals of one species from mating with animals of a closely related species.

Ex. The species specific call given by black headed gull males allows the females to find them.

Front 841

Karl von Frisch

Back 841

1) Found honeybees are able to give directions to other bees based on the dance they do,

Front 842

Darwin's theory of natural selection

Back 842

1) There are genetic differences between members of a species
2) If a specific genetic variation increases the chances of reproduction, it will be passed to next generation. If it decreases chances, it will not be passed on.
3) Eventually more members of species will have variation that increases reproduction & less that decreases variation

Front 843

Reproductive fitness

Back 843

1) The number of offspring that live long enough to reproduce.
2) Animals will act to increase their reproductive fitness

Front 844

Altruism (ethology)

Back 844

1) When animal's behavior decreases its reproductive fitness.
2) Difficult to explain based on darwinism
Ex. when animals put themselves at risk for fellow species-members

Front 845

Theory of kin selection

Back 845

1) Suggests animals act to increase their inclusive fitness, rather than their reproductive fitness.

Front 846

Inclusive fitness

Back 846

1) Takes into account number of the offspring who survive to reproductive age and the number of other relatives who survive to reproductive age.

2) This would explain altruism.

Front 847

Sociobiology

Back 847

1) Studies how various social behaviors increase.
2) Ethology fits under this.
3) E.O. Wilson is most associated with this.

Front 848

William Wundt

Back 848

1) Funded the first psychology laboratory
2) Thought experimental psychology had very little use: methodology could not be used to study higher mental processes.

Front 849

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Back 849

1) Showed higher mental processes could be studied using methodology.
2) Studied memory using nonsense syllables.

Front 850

Oswald Kulpe

Back 850

1) Performed experiments to prove that we can have imageless thoughts.

Front 851

James McKeen Cattell

Back 851

1) Studied under Wundt, introduced mental testing to US.

Front 852

Binet and Simon

Back 852

1) Collaborated to provide Binet-simon test: first intelligence test to test in french school children were too retarded to benefit from ordinary schooling.

2) Binet introduced concept of mental age

Front 853

Willam Stern

Back 853

1) Developed an equation to compare mental age to chronological age, which came to be known at Intelligence Quotient.

Front 854

Lewis Terman

Back 854

1) Developed Stanford-Binet Intelligence test- revised version of Binet-Simon test.

Front 855

Number of IV's vs. Levels of IV's

Back 855

1) An IV can have various levels

Ex: Age is the IV, but the levels are 3 years, 6 years and 9 years so there are 3 levels.

Front 856

Correlational study

Back 856

1) when the IV is not manipulated

Front 857

True experiment

Back 857

1) The IV is manipulated & random assignment is used.

Front 858

Quasi-experimental design

Back 858

1) Do not use random assignment and lack sufficient control over the variables, and therefore, definitive causal factors cannot be made.

Front 859

Naturalistic observational

Back 859

Researcher doesn't intervene; measures natural behavior.

Front 860

Stratified random sampling

Back 860

1) Technique to assure that each subgroup of the population is randomly sampled in proportion to its size.

Front 861

Between subjects design

Back 861

1) Each subject only exposed to 1 level of each IV.
2) Subjects in group 1 don't receive same IV as subject in group 2.

Ex. High protein group vs. Low protein group

Front 862

Matched subjects design

Back 862

1) Match subjects on variable they want to control for (such as IQ).

Front 863

Within-subjects design (repeated measures design)

Back 863

1) Pairing subjects with themselves by using same subject in both groups.
2) Compare their performance with themself.

Front 864

Counterbalancing

Back 864

1) Changing the order that half of the subjects receive IV in within-subjects design to counterbalance the ordering of the IV.

Front 865

Confounding variable

Back 865

1) Unintended independent variables.

Front 866

Nonequivalent group design

Back 866

1) The control group is not necessarily similar to the experimental group since researcher doesn't use random assignment.

Front 867

Single-blind

Back 867

1) Subjects don't know what group they're in

Front 868

Demand characteristics

Back 868

1) Any cues that suggest to the subjects what the researcher expects from them.
2) Overall effects of situation on subjects behavior

Front 869

Placebo effect

Back 869

1) A special kind of demand characteristic
2) Telling the subject what you expect something to do to them when it really doesn't have the potential to do that.

Front 870

Hawthorne effect

Back 870

1) The tendency for people to act differently when they know they're being observed.
2) To control researchers use a control group and also observe them

Front 871

External validity

Back 871

1) How generalizable the results are

Front 872

Descriptive statistics

Back 872

1) Concerned with organizing, describing, quantifying, and summarizing the data.

Front 873

Inferential statistics

Back 873

1) Researchers generalize beyond actual observations.
2) Concerned with making an inference about the sample involved in the research.

Front 874

Measures of central tendency

Back 874

1) Mean, median, mode
2) Bimodal- two middle numbers

Front 875

Measures of variability

Back 875

1) range
2) Standard deviation- typical distance of scores from mean.
3) Variance- the square measure of the SD, how much each score varies from mean.

Front 876

Percentile

Back 876

1) Tells you the percentile of scores that fall at or below that particular scores.

Front 877

Normal distribution

Back 877

1) 68% of scores fall between 1 SD (34/34)
2) 96% fall within 2 SD's (14/14)
3) 4% fall beyond 2 SD's

Front 878

Z-score

Back 878

1) Indicates the number of standard deviations your score is away from the mean.
2) Negative z-scores fall below mean, positive fall above.

Front 879

What happens if you converted every score in a distribution to a z-score?

Back 879

1) If you have a distribution of Z-scores, and calculate the the mean and SD, the mean will always be 0 and SD will always be 1.

Front 880

T-scores

Back 880

1) t-scores have a mean of 50 and a SD of 10.
2) A t-score of 60 is 1 SD above the mean.
3) Often used for score interpretation.

Front 881

Skewed distributions

Back 881

1) The mean, median and mode will not be identical. (As they are in normal distributions)

Front 882

Correlation coefficients

Back 882

1) Tells us the extent to which to variables are related.
2) They're related if knowing the value of one variable helps you predict the value of the other.
3) Range from -1.00 to +1.00
4) If you have a correlation of + or -1.00, you can predict with absolute certainty, the value of the second variable.

Front 883

Significance test

Back 883

1) Attempt to show that the research or alternative hypothesis is supported by the data by showing that other possible hypothesis (null) are inconsistent with the data.

Front 884

Null hypothesis

Back 884

1) The population mean is the same as the sample mean.
there is no difference.

Front 885

Type one error

Back 885

Rejecting the null when it is true.

Front 886

Type 2 error

Back 886

Accepting the null when it is false.

Front 887

Beta

Back 887

The probability of making a type 2 error

Front 888

Types of significance tests

Back 888

1) T-tests- compare means between 2 groups
2) ANOVA
3) chi-square test

Front 889

ANOVA

Back 889

1) Used for more than 2 groups
2) Estimate how much group means differ form each other by comparing between-group variance and within-group variance using F-ratio.
3) Larger f-ratio is more likely to be significant.
4) Also used to determine if there are interactions between two or more IV's

Front 890

Chi-square tests

Back 890

1) Significance tests that work with categorical(nominal) rather than numerical data.
2) We wind up with frequencies or proportions.

Front 891

Meta-analysis

Back 891

1) Statistical procedure used to make conclusions on the basis of data from different studies.

Front 892

Norm-reference testing

Back 892

1) involves assessing an individuals performance in terms of how that person performs in comparison to others.
2) Derived from standardized samples.

Front 893

Domain-referenced testing (criterion-referenced testing)

Back 893

1) Concerned with the question of what the test taker knows about a specific content domain.
2) Performance is described in terms of what the test taker knows or can do.

Note: it's not important how you perform compared to others, but whether you have a mastery of the content.

Front 894

Standard error measurement (SEM)

Back 894

1) Is an index of how much, on average, we expect a persons observed score to vary from the score the person is actually capable of receiving based on their ability.
2) Provides info about a tests reliability
3) The smaller the SEM the better.

Front 895

Alternate form method

Back 895

1) Used to test reliability
2) The examinee is given two different forms of a test that are given at two different times.

Front 896

Split half reliability

Back 896

1) Take only 1 test, but test is divided into equal halves.
2) Scores on first half correlated with scores on 2nd half.
3) A high positive correlation indicates high level of reliability.

Front 897

Criterion validity

Back 897

1) How well the test can predict an individuals performance on an established test of the same skill or knowledge/

Front 898

Cross validation

Back 898

1) Testing the criterion validity of a test on a second sample after demonstrating it's validity on initial sample.

Front 899

Construct validity

Back 899

1) How well performance on the test fits into the theoretical framework related to what it is you want the test to measure.

Ex. Social adeptness is related to intelligence. Someone who scores well on social adeptness should also score well on intelligence.

Front 900

Convergent validity

Back 900

1) Performance on test should be correlated with performance on variables that are theoretically related

Front 901

Divergent validity

Back 901

1) Performance on test should not be correlated with other variable that the theory predicts that test performance should not be related to.

Front 902

Reliability & Validity

Back 902

1) Need reliability for validity
2) Don't need validity for reliability

Front 903

Scales of measurement

Back 903

1) Nominal- names
2) Ordinal- ranks
3) Interval- equal intervals (add/subtract)
4) Ration- equal intervals with true 0 (a 0 must indicate the absence of quantity being measured. 0 degrees is not a true 0) (add/subtract/multiply divide)

Front 904

Aptitude tests

Back 904

1) Predict what one can accomplish through training.
2) These include intelligence tests

Front 905

Achievement tests

Back 905

1) Attempts to assess what one knows or can do now.

Front 906

IQ

Back 906

1) uses a ratio to compare mental age with chronological age.
2) (Mental age/ chronological age) X 100
3) 100 means mental age = chronological age.

Front 907

Ratio IQ problem

Back 907

1) At a certain age, chronological age increases but mental age doesn't

Front 908

Deviation quotients

Back 908

1) Deviation IQ tells us how far away a persons score is from the average score for the particular age group they are a member of.

Front 909

Wechsler tests

Back 909

1) Has 2 major scales: verbal and performance
2) 3 versions:
a) WPPSI (for preschoolers)
b) WISC (for children)
c) WAIS ( for adults)

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Personality inventory

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1) Self-rating device consisting of 100-500 statements.
2) These are quite reliable but people often don't answer truthfully

Front 911

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

Back 911

1) Consists of 550 statements, subject chooses T/F/ cannot say
2) Yields scores on 10 clinical scales including depression, schizophrenia.
3) Has scales to indicate whether person is careless, faking answers, or misrepresenting self which may lead them to throw out results.

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Empirical criterion-keying approach

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1) Used by Hathaway and McKinley to develop MMPI
2) Tested thousands of questions and retained those that differentiated between population and non-population groups.
3)MMPI-2 added content scales that should be related to particular disorder.

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California Psychological Inventory (CPI)

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1) Based on MMPI but focused at typical high school and college students.
2) Has 20 scales and 3 validity scales to assess test-taking attitudes.
3) Measures dominance, sociability, self-control, etc.

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Projective tests

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1) Stimuli are relatively ambiguous
2) test-taker isn't limited to a small number of responses.
3) Scoring is subjective.

Front 915

Rorschach inkblot

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1) Created by Hermann Rorschach
2) Subjects interprets the inkblots

Front 916

Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT)

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1) Created by Morgan & Murray
2) 20 simple pictures depicting ambiguous scenes.
3) Respondent tells story based on picture.
4) Scoring is subjective

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Blacky pictures

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1) Specifically for children
2) 12 cartoon pictures of blacky the dog
3) Provided with 40 sentence stems and asked to complete sentence.

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Rotter incomplete sentences blank

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1) Sentence completion task
2) 40 sentence stems, respondent completes them.

Front 919

Barnum effect

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1) Tendency of people to accept and approve of the interpretation of their personality that you give them

Front 920

Interest testing

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1) Assess individuals interest in different lines of work

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Strong-campbell interest inventory

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1) Designed using empirical criterion-key approach
2) Interpretation based partly on Hollands model of occupational themes.

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Hollands occupational themes

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1) Divided interests into 6 types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional
2) RAISEC system

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Variance equation

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1) Square of the SD

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z-score

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1) (Your score - mean)/ SD