Psychology: Memory And Learning

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Explicit Memory

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Knowledge that consists of the conscious recall of facts and events. (Declarative Memory)

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Implicit Memory

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Memory made up of knowledge based on previous experience, such as skills we perform automatically once we have mastered them. (Non-Declarative Memory)

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Sensory Memory

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The part of memory that holds information in it's original sensory form for a very brief period of time, usually half a second or less.

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Short-Term Memory

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The part of memory that temporarily (2-30 secs) stores a limited amount of information before it is either transferred to long term storage or forgotten. (Working Memory)

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Long-Term Memory

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The part of memory that has the capacity to store a vast amount of information for as little as 30 seconds up to a lifetime.

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Iconic Memory

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Memory for visual stimuli, which can be defined as very brief sensory memory.

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Chunking

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The process is which a list of items is broken down into smaller sets of meaningful units.

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Rehearsal

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The process of repeatedly practicing material so it enters long term memory.

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Serial Position Effect

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The tendency to have better recall for items in a list according to their position in the list.

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Procedural Memory

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Kind of memory made up of implicit knowledge for almost any behaviour or physical skill we have learned.

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Priming

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Kind of implicit memory that arises when recall is improved by earlier exposure to the same or similar stimuli.

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Semantic Memory

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Form of memory that gives meaning and recalls facts and general knowledge.

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Episodic Memory

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Form of memory that recalls the experiences we have had.

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Encoding

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First stage of long -term memory; the process by which the brain attends to, takes in, and integrates new information.

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Automatic Processing

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Encoding of information that occurs with little effort or conscious attention to the task.

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Effortful Processing

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Encoding of information that occurs with careful attention and conscious effort; usually requires rehearsal.

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Mnemonic Device

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A method devised to help remember information, such as a rhyme or acronym.

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Dual Coding Theory

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Theory proposing that visual and verbal information are process by independent, non-competing systems.

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Consolidation

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Second stage of long-term memory formation; the process of establishing, stabilizing, or solidifying a memory.

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Storage

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Third stage of long-term memory formation; the retention of memory over time.

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Schemas

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Mental Frameworks that develop from our experiences with particular people, objects, or events.

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Retrieval

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Fourth stage of long-term memory formation; the recovery of information stored in memory.

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Flashbulb Memory

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A vivid memory for an emotional event of great significance.

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Interference

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Disruption of memory because other information competes with what we are trying to recall.

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Proactive Interference

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Disruption of memory because previously learned information interferes with the learning of new information.

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Retroactive Interference

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Disruption of memory because new experiences or information cause people to forget previously learned experiences.

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Transience

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Most common type of forgetfulness due to the fleeting nature of some memories (Decay)

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Absent-Mindedness

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A form of forgetfulness that results from inattention.

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Blocking

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The inability to retrieve information once it is stored (Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon)

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Repression

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A form of forgetting whereby encoded memories are actively inhibited or forgotten.

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Misattribution

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Confusing the original source of the memory

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Persistence

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The repeated recall of events, even when we actively try to forget them.

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Suggestibility

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Memories implanted based on leading questions of suggestions.

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False Memories

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Memories for events that never actually happened.

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Recovered Memory

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Memory from a real event that is not retrieved until some later event brings it into consciousness.

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Amnesia

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Memory loss due to brain damage or disease.

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Retrograde Amnesia

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Inability to remember anything before the injury.

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Anterograde Amnesia

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Inability to remember anything after the injury (H.M.)

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Association

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Process by which two pieces of information from the environment are repeatedly linked, so we connect them with our minds.

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Conditioning

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A form of associative learning in which behaviors are triggered by associations with events in the environment.

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Classical Conditioning

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Occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus to which the learner has an automatic, inborn response.

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Unconditioned Response (UR)

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The inborn, automatic reaction to a stimulus. (Heart rate, salvation, fear, tears, etc.)

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Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

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The stimulus that always produces the same unlearned response.

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Conditioned Response (CR)

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A behavior that an individual learns to perform when presented with the CS.

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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

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A previously neutral stimulus that an individual learns to associate with the US.

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Stimulus Generalization

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Extension of the association between US and CS to include a broad array of similar stimuli.

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Stimulus Discrimination

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Restriction of a CR to the exact CS to which it was conditioned.

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Extinction

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The weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response, which occurs when the US is no longer paired with the CS.

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Spontaneous Recovery

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The sudden reappearance of an extinguished response.

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Higher-order Conditioning

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A form of conditioning whereby a neutral stimulus is paired with a CS.

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Law of Effect (Thorndike)

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The consequences of a behavior increase/decrease the likelihood that the action will be repeated.

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Operant Conditioning

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Learning based upon the consequences of behavior.

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Reinforcement

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When a behavior is strengthened.

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Positive Reinforcement

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When behavior results in something desirable.

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Negative Reinforcement

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When you do something and it takes away something you don't like.

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Punishment

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When a behavior is weakened.

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Positive Punishment

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When you receive something that weakens the behavior.

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Negative Punishment

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The removal of a stimulus to decrease behavior.

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Primary Reinforcers

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Unlearned reinforcers that satisfy biological needs (food, water, pain)

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Shaping

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The reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior

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Continuous Reinforcment

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Reinforcement of a behavior every time it occurs.

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Intermittent Reinforcement

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Reinforcement of a behavior - but not after every response.

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Imprinting

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The rapid and innate learning of the characterisitics of a caregiver soon after birth.

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Latent Learning

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Learning that occurs in the absense of reinforcement that is not demonstrated until later, when reinforcement occurs.

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Conditioned Taste Aversion

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The learned avoidance of a particular taste or food (Does not follow Pavlov's Fundamental Rules)

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Enactive Learning

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Learning by doing

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Observational Learning

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Learning by watching the behavior of others

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Modelling

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Imitation of behaviors performed by others

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Secondary Reinforcers

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Reinforcers learned by association (money, grades