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36 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Cognition |
Thought Higher level mental processes like analyzing, generating ideas, problem solving, logical thinking, language. |
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Perception |
Organization and identification of sensory inputs. |
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Information processing model |
The brain is like a computer. Input: stimulus to the brain Brain processes the stimulus Decides on output Serial processing: considers one input at a time Parallel processing: considers multiple inputs at the same time Brain uses different parts of the brain to process different kinds of information. |
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Brain lobes |
Information processing occurs in the most evolved part of the brain- the cerebrum. |
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Piaget's theory of cognitive development in children |
Children experiment with their environment, and fit the results from their experimentation to preexisting schemas through assimilation. If there are no suitable schemas, the child changes existing schemas through accommodation. Development is self-initiated. Vygotsky: social learning- influenced by culture. |
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Piaget's stages of cognitive development |
All children pass through these stages at the same age- Piaget Not continuous development like Vygotsky said. -Sensorimotor: 0-2 years Learning to separate themselves from objects, learning object permanence - Preoperational: 2-7 years Learn to use language, continue to think literally, egocentric, pretend play - Concrete operational: 7- 11 years Become more logical in concrete thinking, develop inductive reasoning (specific--> general), understand conservation, math - Formal operational: 11 and older Become more logical in abstract thinking, deductive reasoning (general--> specific), theoretical and philosophical thinking, capable of reaching Kohlberg's post-conventional moral reasoning |
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Role of culture in cognitive development |
Western children: object focused Eastern children: relationally focused |
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Learning theory of language development (Behaviourist theory) |
Children learn language through increasingly specific reinforcement from their environment (operant conditioning), rather than innate ability. |
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Nativist theory of language development |
Everyone has an innate neural language acquisition device. |
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Interactionist theory of language learning |
Interplay between environment and innate biology. The human brain develops to be more receptive to language, and children and motivated to practice and improve their language in order to communicate and socialize. |
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Language and thought |
Different languages create different thought patterns, social interactions, and ways of understanding, explaining and discussing abstract concepts. |
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Neural basis of language |
Left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex. Broca's aphasia/ expressive aphasia: difficult to enunciate and speak fluently. Still understand others perfectly. Frontal lobe. Wernicke's aphasia/ receptive aphasia: difficulty understanding the meaning of words. Temporal lobe. |
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Intelligence |
Ability to understand and reason with complex ideas, adapt to the environment, and learn from experience. |
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IQ (Intelligence Quotient) |
Predicts school performance. Correlates more with school skills like math and reading and less with other skills like art. Average score: 100 Every 15 points: one standard deviation from the mean Below 100: general learning disability - easy to administer and compare - indicator of academic performance - does not predict future success - cultural bias |
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General intelligence factor (g) |
Everyone has a set intelligence level which relates to all their intellectual pursuits. Fluid intelligence Crystallized intelligence |
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Theory of multiple intelligences (Howard Gardner) |
Everyone has different levels of intelligence for different domains, which interact to solve problems and perform tasks. e.g. for language, music, maths |
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Emotional intelligence |
1. perceiving emotions 2. using and reasoning with emotions 3. understanding emotions 4. managing emotions |
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Factors influencing intelligence |
Hereditary influences - phenylketoneuria (inability to metabolize phenyalalnine) - Down Syndrome - Fragile X syndrome - twins have very similar IQ Environmental influences - prenatal (in utero) environment- affected by maternal health - postnatal environment: e.g. SES |
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Problem solving methods |
1. algorithm: step by step, arriving at definite solution, exhaustive, not always efficient 2. analogies: reducing a new complex problem to a set of smaller more familiar problems 3. trial and error: repeated, unsystematic attempts till the outcome is achieved, very inefficient 4. heuristics: mental shortcuts, "rules of thumb" 5. intuition: based on personal perception or feeling rather than logic |
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Problems to problem solving |
1. heuristics: may lead to overgeneralization e.g. representativeness heuristics: what is representative may have very low probability Availability heuristic: assigning high likelihood to what is most available to conscious thought 2. bias: tendencies to think in particular ways e.g. functional fixedness: thinking that objects have only a single function Causation bias: assuming a cause and effect relationship Confirmation bias: valuing evidence which supports existing beliefs but disregarding evidence which goes against preconceived notions. Related to: 3. belief perseverance: holding onto initial beliefs, even when they are proven incorrect e.g. overconfidence (medium confidence is useful) 4. emotion |
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Emotion |
1. cognitive: personal assessment of the significance of a situation, leading to the subjective experience of the emotion (feeling) 2. physiological: activation of the autonomic nervous system 3. behavioural: urges to act in a certain way |
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Emotional brain |
Unconscious: Limbic Amygdala- fear and anger Amygdala and hippocampus circuitry- recollecting emotional memories when similar memories occur Hypothalamus- regulates the sympathetic and parasympathetic pathway Conscious: Prefrontal cortex: regulation of emotions, temperament and decision making |
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Theories of emotion |
- James-Lange theory of emotion: external stimulus elicits a physiological response, emotional experience depends on the recognition and interpretation of this response e.g. breathing fast= I am scared - Cannon-Bard theory of emotion: feelings and physiological responses to stimuli are experienced simultaneously e.g. see dragon: heart beating fast + afraid - Schacter-Singer theory of emotion (2-factor theory of emotion): physiological arousal is the first step (similar to James-Lange). One takes into account both physiological response and situational cues to identify a reason for the arousal. e.g. crying + exam = sad |
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Universal emotions |
Fear, anger, happiness, surprise, joy, disgust, sadness |
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Emotion is adaptive |
- promotes the organism's ability to thrive - allows interpersonal communication |
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Motivation |
Psychological factor which provides a reason for behaviour. |
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Origins of motivation |
1. needs: psychological or physiological 2. instinct: biological, innate tendency to perform an action which satisfies a need (everyone has the same instincts- e.g. babies know to seek a nipple for feeding) 3. arousal: physiological and psychological tension 4. drive: urge to do something to reduce arousal e.g. thirst- negative feedback system |
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Motivation theories |
1. drive reduction theory (internal factors): People are motivated to act to reduce a drive for an innate physiological need. 2. incentive theory: people are motivated by external rewards which result in pleasure Contrast: operant conditioning only looks at the outcomes of reinforcement or punishment, not the emotions and motivations involved. 3. Cognitive theory: people act based on expectations of what will yield the best results. Intrinsic: internal drive (e.g. satisfaction) Extrinsic: reward 4. Need based theories : Maslow's hierarchy of needs |
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Maslow's hierarchy of needs |
Common to all people. |
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Attitudes |
Components 1. affective component: feeling's or emotions about something 2. behavioural component: influence of attitudes on behaviour 3. cognitive component: beliefs or knowledge about something |
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Behaviour --> attitude Foot in the door phenomenon people are more likely to agree to a big request if they first agree to a small request Role-playing Attitude --> behaviour - why reinforcement is more effective than punishment |
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Cognitive dissonance |
Conflict between internal attitudes and external behaviour. People have an inherent desire to avoid this discomfort. Ways of coping: 1. changing the attitude or the behaviour 2. justifying the behaviour by changing the conflicting cognition 3. justifying the behaviour by adding new cognitions |
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Theories of attitude and behaviour change |
1. Elaboration likelihood model (intentional persuasion) Peripheral route processing: not thinking deeply to evaluate the argument Central route processing: thinking deeply and elaborating on the argument 2. Social cognitive theory (social learning) - behaviour and attitudes change through reciprocal causation (personal factors, behaviour and environment all interact) - people learn behaviours from observing others - people have a strong ability to self-regulate behaviour |
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Cognitive appraisal of stress |
1. primary appraisal: is there a threat? If yes, 2. secondary appraisal: can I cope with it? If no, greater stress! |
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Physiological response to stress
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Fight or flight Sympathetic nervous system releases epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and more longer lasting chemicals from adrenal glands (Cortisol- primary stress hormone) - cortisol increases blood glucose, which is directed toward the muscles Chronic stress: digestive problems, weight gain, sleep issues, lowered immunity Ways to cope with stress: exercise, meditation (mindfulness), spirituality |
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Arousal and performance |
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