Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
262 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
A relatively enduring change in behavior that is the product of experience
|
learning
|
|
|
Environmental events that are capable of triggering changes in behavior
|
stimuli
|
|
|
2 types of learning
|
associative and non-associative
|
|
|
Branch of psychology that first studied learning and focused only on observable events
|
behaviorial psychology
|
|
|
The 3 associative learning procedures
|
classical conditioning
operant conditioning observational learning |
|
|
Expectations and the ability to represent events mentally
|
cognitive factors in learning
|
|
|
Learning that happens when the repeated presentation of a single stimulus produces an enduring change in behavior
|
non-associative learning
|
|
|
A non-associative learning process in which there is a decrease in psychological response and behavioral response to a stimulus after repeated exposure to that stimulus over a duration of time
|
habituation
|
|
|
Pogressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus
|
sensitization
|
|
|
process by which people mentaly store and integrate information they see and experience in the environment
|
internalization
|
|
|
Strategies or styles of instruction
|
pedagogy
|
|
|
When a teacher lectures to students
|
didactic learning
|
|
|
Adult-supervised education that relies on peers interacting, sharing, planning, and supporting each other
|
cooperative learning
|
|
|
Behavior which has no particular end in itself, but improves performance in similar situations in the future
|
play
|
|
|
Classrooms that use a technique known as jigsawing, in which each pupil is given part of the total material to master and then share with other group members
|
jigsaw learning
|
|
|
An attempt to describe how people and animals learn
|
learning theory
|
|
|
The American psychologist who established the school of behaviorism after studying animals
|
John B Watson
|
|
|
Russian nobel prize winner who first described classical conditioning
|
Ivan Pavlov
|
|
|
American behavioral psychologist who studied and defined operant conditioning
|
BF Skinner
|
|
|
Psychologist known for his social learning theory, as well as influencing the transition between behaviorism and cognitive psychology.
|
Albert Bandura
|
|
|
American psychologist and social learning theorist who believes personality and situational variables are imortant in explaining behavior
|
Walter Mischel
|
|
|
American psychologist who is known for developing influential theories, including social learning theory and locus of control
|
Julian Rotter
|
|
|
Russian development psychologist who developed the sociocultural theory of cognitive development
|
Lev Vygotsky
|
|
|
Behaviorists
|
John B Watson
Ivan Pavlov BF Skinner |
|
|
Social Learning Theorists (cognitive-behavioral psychologists)
|
Albert Bandura
Walter Mischel Julian Rotter |
|
|
A primitive form of learning in which some infant animals physically follow and form an attachment to the first moving object they see and/or hear
|
imprinting
|
|
|
The ways in which events, stimuli, and behavior become associated with one another
|
conditioning
|
|
|
Who first demonstrated associative learning?
|
Ivan Pavlov
|
|
|
Associative learning is also referred to as what?
|
classical conditioning
|
|
|
What do experiments in classical conditioning seek to do?
|
Pair a stimulus that evokes a reflexive response with a previously neutral stimulus, conditioning th subject to reflexively respond to the neutral stimulus
|
|
|
Any stimulus that, when made contingent upon a response, increases the probability of that response
|
reinforcer
|
|
|
Biologically determined reinforcers such as food and water
|
primary reinforcers
|
|
|
In classical conditioning, formerly neutral stimuli that have become reinforcers
|
conditioned reinforcers
|
|
|
A response elicited by some previously neutral stimulus that occurs as a result of pairing the neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus
|
conditioned response (CR)
|
|
|
The response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior training or learning (the response of interest)
|
unconditioned response (UCR)
|
|
|
A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response
|
conditioned stimulus (CS)
|
|
|
The stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response
|
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
|
|
|
Type of conditioning that generates reflexive behavior
|
classical conditioning
|
|
|
Evidence of learning in classical conditioning
|
Stimulus produces a new response
|
|
|
Timing between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus
|
temporal relationship
|
|
|
Conditioned stimulus presented before unconditoned stimulus
|
forward pairing
|
|
|
Conditioned stimulus presented after unconditoned stimulus
|
backward pairing
|
|
|
Conditioned stimulus presented at exactly the same time as unconditoned stimulus
|
simultaneous pairing
|
|
|
Occurs when a cnditioned response occurs to a stimulus that only resembles or is similar to the conditioned stimulus, but not identical to it
|
stimulus generalization
|
|
|
When the differences between stimuli are notcied and are not responded to in similar ways
|
stimulus discrimination
|
|
|
The theory that the deeper the level at which information was processed, the more likely it is to be retained in memory
|
levels-of-processing theory
|
|
|
The difference between what has been learned and what is expressed in overt behavior
|
learning-performance distinction
|
|
|
A form of learning in which a stimulus is first made meaningful for the subject through an initial step of learning, and then that stimulus is used as a basis for learning about some new stimulus
|
higher order conditioning
|
|
|
This type of learning is accomplished by repeating observed behavior
|
observational learning
|
|
|
What theory suggests that when people observe positive, desired outcomes in the observed behavior, they are more likely to model, imitate, and adopt the behavior themselves
|
Social Learning Theory (SLT)
|
|
|
Key difference in concept that distinguishes social learning theorists from behaviorists
|
Belief that people can regulate and control their own behavior despite changes in their environment
|
|
|
People we learn from in observational learning
|
models
|
|
|
A technique in therapy in which the client learns by observing a target behaviour perfomed competently by another person
|
modeling
|
|
|
Four processes that guide observational learning
|
attention
retention reproduction of action motivation |
|
|
Learning by watching what happens to models
|
vicarious learning
|
|
|
When the learner observes the model receiving reinforcement
|
vicarious reinforcement
|
|
|
When the learner observes the model being punished for engaging in a behavior
|
vicarious punishment
|
|
|
Who initiated social learning theory?
|
Albert Bandura
|
|
|
A person's expectations of success, as it applies to social learning theory
|
self-efficacy
|
|
|
The idea that personality, behavior, and environment constantly influence one another and shape each other in a reciprocal fashion
|
reciprocal influences or reciprocal determinism
|
|
|
A form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response, but which it occurs at a later time, when needed
|
latent learning
|
|
|
Psychologist who put forth the idea of situational specificity in social learning theory
|
Walter Mischel
|
|
|
The idea that a person often behaves differently in different situations
|
situational specificity
|
|
|
Pyschologist who proposed the locus of control as the main influence in how we behave
|
Julian Rotter
|
|
|
What Rotter believed personality is determined by
|
generalized expectations about future outcomes and reinforcements
|
|
|
The extent to which individuals believe that they can control events that affect them
|
locus of control
|
|
|
A person who believes fate or chance controls her/his life probably has what kind of locus of control?
|
high external locus of control
|
|
|
If a person has a high internal locus of control, what do they believe is responsible for events in their lives?
|
Their own behaviors and actions
|
|
|
Why people with an external locus of control are less likely to change their behavior as a result of reinforcement
|
Because they do not understand the relationship between the reinforcement and their behavior
|
|
|
Learning an association between a stimulus and a response that predictably follows it, where this learning either increases or decreases the frequency of the response
|
operant conditioning
|
|
|
Conditioning where the response influences whether a stimulus occurs
|
instrumental (operant) conditioning
|
|
|
Who is considered to be the founder of operant conditioning methodology?
|
BF Skinner
|
|
|
A chamber with levers tha dispense food, designed to study the effect of various schedules of reinforcement in small animals
|
Skinner box
|
|
|
Behavior emitted by an organism that can be characterized in terms of the observable effects it has on the environment
|
operant
|
|
|
In operant conditioning, reinforcement always involves…
|
an increase in the target behavior
|
|
|
In operant conditioning, the patterns of delivering and withholding reinforcement
|
schedules of reinforcement
|
|
|
A negative or aversive event that is contingent on a behavior
|
punishment
|
|
|
In operant conditioning, this descriptor means that the stimlus shows up
|
positive
|
|
|
An event presented as a consequence of a person behaving in a desired way
|
positive reinforcement
|
|
|
A practice of imposing something unpleasant or aversive on a subject, to discourage undesirable behavior
|
positive punishment
|
|
|
In operant conditioning, this descriptor means that the stimlus is removed
|
negative
|
|
|
Cessation of negative or aversive events that is contingent on giving a desired response
|
negative reinforcement
|
|
|
Punishment by removing something pleasant, in response to undesirable behavior
|
negative punishment
|
|
|
When a behavior no longer produces predictable consequences, its return to the level of occurrence it had before operant conditioning
|
Extinction
|
|
|
When a parent ignores a child who is misbehaving, this type of conditioning is called
|
extinction by omission
|
|
|
When both positive and negative reinforcement for an undesired behavior is removed, this response is initially expected
|
increase in frequency and/or escalation of the undesired behavior
|
|
|
The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period
|
spontaneous recovery
|
|
|
In operant conditioning, what is the benefit of partial reinforcement over continuous reinforcement?
|
Partial reinforcement is more resistant to exinction
|
|
|
Rules for determining when reinforcement will be given
|
reinforcement schedules
|
|
|
Reinforcement schedule based on how many times the subject has made the response
|
ratio schedule
|
|
|
Reinforcement based on the amount of time elapsed since the last reinforcement
|
interval schedule
|
|
|
A schedule of reinforcement in which a reinforcer is delivered for the first response made after a fixed period of time
|
Fixed-interval schedule
|
|
|
A schedule of reinforcement in which a reinforcer is delivered for the first response made after a fixed number of responses
|
Fixed-ratio schedule
|
|
|
A schedule of reinforcement in which a reinforcer is delivered for the first response made after a variable period of time whose average is predetermined
|
variable-interval schedule
|
|
|
A schedule of reinforcement in which a reinforcer is delivered for the first response made after a variable number of responses whose average is predetermined
|
variable-ratio schedule
|
|
|
Conditioning where the consequence of behavior involves a loss of money
|
response-cost training
|
|
|
When a subject learns that a certain response will result in the termination or prevention of an aversive stimulus
|
avoidance conditioning
|
|
|
A form of conditioning in which the subject learns to perform a behavior that terminates an aversive stimulus, pain or punishment by escaping from the aversive stimulus.
|
escape conditioning
|
|
|
The condition of a human being or an animal in which it has learned to behave helplessly, even when the opportunity is restored for it to help itself by avoiding an unpleasant or harmful circumstance to which it has been subjected
|
learned helplessness
|
|
|
A process of behavior modification in which a subject is encouraged to behave in a desired manner through positive or negative reinforcement, so that the subject comes to associate the pleasure or displeasure of the reinforcement with the behavior
|
shaping
|
|
|
Cues that indicate a response is likely to be reinforced (such as a light going on above a food lever)
|
discriminitive stimuli
|
|
|
Type of conditioning that generates voluntary behavior
|
operant conditioning
|
|
|
Evidence of learning in operant conditioning
|
a behavior happens more or less often (as conditioned)
|
|
|
Processes of knowing, including attending, remembering, and reasoning; also the content of the processes, such as concepts and memories.
|
cognition
|
|
|
The global capacity to profit from experience and to go beyond given information about the environment
|
intelligence
|
|
|
The ability to generate ideas or products that are both novel and appropriate to the circumstances
|
creativity
|
|
|
According to Spearman, the factor of general intelligence underlying all intelligent performance
|
g
|
|
|
Proposed that intelligence consists of 150 distinct abilities
|
J. P. Guilford
|
|
|
The 7 independent primary mental abilities identified by L.L. Thurstone using factor analysis
|
numerical ability
reasoning verbal fluency spatial visualization perceptual ability memory verbal comprehension |
|
|
Basic intelligence
|
academic IQ
|
|
|
Applied intelligence
|
practical IQ
|
|
|
What Raymond B. Cattell argued that cognitive ability consists of
|
fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence
|
|
|
Three aspects of intelligence according to Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence
|
componential (the critical aspect)
experiential (the insightful aspect) contextual (the practical aspect) |
|
|
The ability to use internal information-processing strategies when identifying and thinking about solving a problem, including evaluating results
|
componential intelligence
|
|
|
The ability to transfer learning effectively to new skills
|
experiential intelligence
|
|
|
The ability to apply intelligence practically, including taking into account social, cultural, and historical contexts
|
contextual intelligence
|
|
|
The ability to work the system to one's own advantage, a form of contextual intelligence
|
tacit knowledge (savvy)
|
|
|
Howard Gardner's concept that there are seven components of intelligence (language ability, logical-mathematical thinking, spatial thinking, musical, bodily kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal thinking)
|
theory of multiple intelligences
|
|
|
The ability to validly reason with emotions and to use emotions to enhance thought
|
emotional intelligence
|
|
|
Tests that generate a single IQ score assume this
|
That there is a single type of skill underlying people's ability to solve all types of problems
|
|
|
Term suggesting that genetics may limit or define a potential range of IQ, but that environment can influence where along this range an individual's IQ score falls
|
reaction range
|
|
|
The smalest units of sound that affects the meaning of speech - of which English has 53
|
phonemes
|
|
|
The smallest linguistic unit that has semantic meaning (such as roots, stems, prefixes, and suffixes)
|
morphemes
|
|
|
The study of meaning, usually in language
|
semantics
|
|
|
The set of rules that determine how words are combined to create phrases and sentences
|
syntax
|
|
|
The study of how sounds are put together to make words
|
phonetics
|
|
|
A broader term than syntax, encompassing both syntax and phonetics
|
grammar
|
|
|
Social aspects of language, including politeness, conversational interactions, and conversational rules
|
pragmatics
|
|
|
Study of the pscyhological mechanisms related to the acquisition and use of language
|
psycholinguistics
|
|
|
Components of language that interest psycholinguists
|
content, form, and use
|
|
|
The words actually spoken in a sentence
|
surface structure
|
|
|
Underlying meaning of a sentence
|
deep structure
|
|
|
The idea that when we hear a spoken sentence, we do not retain the surface structure but instead transform it into its deep structure
|
transformational grammar theory
|
|
|
Understanding of the spoken and written word
|
receptive language
|
|
|
Ability to use the spoken or written word
|
productive language
|
|
|
First stage of infant speech development
|
cooing and crying
|
|
|
Stage of infant speech development at around six months to one year
|
babbling stage
|
|
|
Infant speech stage occuring around 12 to 18 months
|
one word (holophrastic) stage
|
|
|
Infant speech stage occuring around 18 to 24 months
|
two-word stage
|
|
|
Speech after the two-word stage, consisting of sentences without morphemes, conjunctions, prepositions, or any other function words
|
telegraphic speech
|
|
|
Age when children usually have acquired most of the syntax of their native language
|
age 5
|
|
|
Last stage in language development
|
acquiring syntax
|
|
|
A grammatical error, usually appearing during early language development, in which rules of the language are applied too widely, resulting in incorrect linguistic forms
|
overregularization
|
|
|
When a child in the one-word stage uses a single word as an overgeneralization for other meanings
|
overextension
|
|
|
When a child in the one-word stage uses a single word to define an item only in a certain context, when it would apply elsewhere
|
underextension
|
|
|
A single word that a child (in the one-word stage) uses to mean an entire phrase
|
holophrase
|
|
|
Roger Brown's suggested stages of sequential language development
|
utterances
phrases with inflections simple sentences complex sentences |
|
|
Variations in a language, often regional
|
dialect
|
|
|
Researcher Susan Carey's hypothesized mental process whereby a new concept (such as a word) can be learned based only on a single exposure to a given unit of information
|
fast mapping
|
|
|
A special form of speech with an exaggerated and high-pitched intonation that adults use to speak to infants and young children, which many researchers believe helps children learn language
|
child-directed speech
|
|
|
The branch of theoretical linguistics that works to provide a set of rules that can accurately predict which combinations of words are able to make grammatically correct sentences
|
generative grammar
|
|
|
A founder of modern linguistics who developed the theory of generative grammar
|
Noam Chomsky
|
|
|
What was the key idea that Chomsky's work was based around?
|
That properties of generative grammar come from a universal grammar that is common among all spoken and written language forms
|
|
|
Which branch of psychology is Noam Chomsky's work most compatible with?
|
cognitive psychology
|
|
|
The view that certain skills or abilities (such as the ability for language) are hard wired into the brain at birth
|
nativism
|
|
|
The theory that knowledge arises from sense experience (and is not innate)
|
empiricism
|
|
|
The innate guidelines or operating principles that children bring to the task of learning a language
|
language-making capacity
|
|
|
An early concept of Chomsky that suggested a part of the brain that functions as a congenital device for learning symbolic language
|
language acquisition device
|
|
|
The ability to store information and retrieve it again
|
memory
|
|
|
The process by which a mental representation is formed in memory
|
encoding
|
|
|
The principle that subsequent retrieval of information is enhanced if cues received at the time of recall are consistent with those present at the time of encoding
|
encoding specificity principe
|
|
|
Craik and Lockhart's proposed levels for encoding incoming information
|
structural
phonemic semantic |
|
|
Information storage based on visual codes - what it looks like
|
structural
|
|
|
Information storage based on acoustic codes - what it sounds like
|
phonemic
|
|
|
Information storage based on semantic codes - what it means
|
semantic
|
|
|
Thoery that suggests that deeper levels of processing results in longer-lasting memory codes
|
levels of processing theory
|
|
|
Most information appears to be stored in memory based on this type of code
|
semantic
|
|
|
The initial memory processes involved in the momentary preservation of fleeting impressions of sensory stimuli
|
sensory memory
|
|
|
Sensory memory that allows auditory information to be stored for brief durations
|
echoic memory
|
|
|
Sensory memory in the visual domain; allows large amounts of information to be stored for very brief durations
|
iconic memory
|
|
|
Memory processes associated with preservation of recent experiences and with retrieval of information from long-term memory
|
short-term memory (STM)
|
|
|
A memory resource that is used to accomplish tasks such as reasoning and language comprehension; consists of the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive
|
working memory
|
|
|
The process of taking single items of information and recoding them on the basis of similarity or some other organizing principle
|
chunking
|
|
|
Measure of the capacity of short-term memory
|
memory span
|
|
|
Memory processes associated with the preservation of information for retrieval at any later time
|
long-term memory (LTM)
|
|
|
Thoery that suggests that we store meanings in propositional representations in long-term memory
|
propositional network theory
|
|
|
The smallest unit of information that makes sense
|
proposition
|
|
|
Memories which can be consciously recalled such as facts and events
|
declarative memory
|
|
|
Long-term memories for autobiographical events and the contexts in which they occurred
|
episodic memory
|
|
|
Long-term store of factual memory
|
semantic memory
|
|
|
Memory for how things get done; the way perceptual, cognitive, and motor skills are acquired, retained, and used
|
procedural memory
|
|
|
Memory characterized by relatively long-asting and detailed images of scenes that can be scanned as if they were physically present
|
eidetic memory
|
|
|
A chronic organic brain syndrome characterized by gradual loss of memory, decline in intellectual ability, and deterioration of personality
|
Alzheimer's disease
|
|
|
Neurotransmitter that is known to be important in memory
|
acetylcholine
|
|
|
Strategies or devices that use familiar information during the encoding of new information to enhance subsequent access to the information in memory
|
mnemonic strategies
|
|
|
Repeating (or writing or reading) the information over and over, as a method for remembering
|
rehearsal
|
|
|
Thinking about how new material is connected or related to infrmation already in long-term memory, as a method for remembering
|
elaboration
|
|
|
Using a path you are familiar with to associate items in a list with each landmark, as a method for remembering
|
method of loci
|
|
|
A memory method for a sequential list of items, where you create a list of number-keyed images that you then associate visually with each item in the list
|
peg word system
|
|
|
Reorganizing information into more meaningful groupings, as a method for remembering
|
organization
|
|
|
Series of five steps that can be used to elarn reading material: surveying, questioning, reading, reciting, and reviewing
|
SQ3R
|
|
|
Studying or practicing the material beyond mastery - beyond the point where it can be repeated or carried out without error
|
overlearning
|
|
|
Improving one's memory by becoming aware of how it works, its limitations, and strategies for remembering
|
metamemory
|
|
|
Engaging in short study sessions spread out over an extended period of time to better remember the material
|
spaced practice
|
|
|
Any stimulus or bit of information that aids in the retrieval of information from long-term memory
|
retrieval cues
|
|
|
Two basic methods of measuring retrieval
|
recall
recognition |
|
|
A memory phenomenon that occurs when retrieval cues do not point effectively to one specific memory
|
inference
|
|
|
The physical memory trace for information in the brain
|
engram
|
|
|
The perspective that suggests that memory is best when the type of processing carried out at encoding matches the processes carried out at retrieval
|
transfer-appropriate processing
|
|
|
Memory for information such as facts and events
|
declarative memory
|
|
|
A characteristic of memory retrieval in which the recall of beginning and end items on a list is often better than recall of items appearing in the middle
|
Serial position effect
|
|
|
Improved memory for items at the start of a list
|
primacy effect
|
|
|
Improved memory for items at the end of a list
|
recency effect
|
|
|
The process of putting information together based on general types of stored knowledge in the absence of a specific memory representation
|
reconstructive memory
|
|
|
Implicit or explicit knowledge about memory abilities and effective memory strategies; cognition about memory
|
metamemory
|
|
|
A failure of memory caused by physical injury, disease, drug use, or psychological trauma
|
amnesia
|
|
|
That peopole remember more material when their psychological state is similar to what it was when the material was originally learned is an example of this
|
state dependent learning
|
|
|
A learning method that suggests that we should study or learn in a location or context that is as similar as possible to where we will be tested, in order to maximize retrieval cues
|
locus dependent learning
|
|
|
Experience of being confident that we know information but cannot retrieve it
|
tip-of-the-tongue experience
|
|
|
When specific information cannot be recalled, why can it be recognized?
|
Because recognition tests provide retrieval cues about the needed information
|
|
|
Theory of forgetting that says that if information in long-term memory is not used, it gradually fades over time until it is lost completely
|
decay theory
|
|
|
Information in long-term memory is forgotten because other learning ets in the way of what needs to be remembered
|
interference theory
|
|
|
When old information in long-term memory interferes with remembering new information
|
proactive interference
|
|
|
When new memories interfere with remembering old memories
|
retroactive interference
|
|
|
Idea that forgetting happens when not enough retrieval cues are available to prompt remembering
|
retrieval failure
|
|
|
Idea that forgetting can seem to occur when information never made it from short-term memory into long-term memory
|
encoding failure
|
|
|
When a disruption in the implanting of memories into long-term memories prevents a permanent memory from forming
|
consolidation failure
|
|
|
A loss of memory for events occurring for periods of time prior to a brain injury
|
retrograde amnesia
|
|
|
A loss of memory for events occuring after a brain injury
|
anterograde amnesia
|
|
|
When anxiety producing, unpleasant memories are no longer consciously available because it would be disturbing to remember them
|
motivated forgetting
|
|
|
What does Hermann Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve document?
|
That most forgetting occurs immediately after learning, and then the rate of forgetting slows down considerably
|
|
|
Ebbinghaus's documentation of "measured savings" demonstrates what?
|
That forgetting is never complete
|
|
|
Awareness of one's own cognitive processes
|
metacognition
|
|
|
Manipulation of mental representations
|
thinking
|
|
|
A label that reprsents a class or group of objects, people, or events that share common characteristics or qualities
|
concept
|
|
|
How we organize our thinking
|
using concepts
|
|
|
A concept that is clearly defined by a set of rules, a formal definition, or a classification system
|
artificial or formal concept
|
|
|
A concept acquired not from a definition but through everyday perceptions and experiences
|
natural or fuzzy concept
|
|
|
An example that embodies the most common and typical features of a concept
|
prototype
|
|
|
Rapidly formed judgements based on "gut feelings" or "instincts"
|
intuition
|
|
|
Mental representations of things that are not physically present
|
mental imagery
|
|
|
Two ways psychologists believe we might store mental images
|
analog code or propositions
|
|
|
Mental representations of particular spatial arrangements
|
cognitive maps
|
|
|
Transforming information to reach a conclusion
|
reasoning
|
|
|
Reasoning from the specific to the general
|
inductive reasoning
|
|
|
Reasoning from the general to the specific
|
deductive reasoning
|
|
|
Mental procedures that yield valid conclusions
|
logical reasoning
|
|
|
Arguments made up of two premises and a conclusion based on these premises, which require deductive reasoning
|
syllogisms
|
|
|
Type of reasoning task made up of four parts, where the relationship between the first two parts is the same relationship between the last two; requires inductive reasoning
|
analogy
|
|
|
Mental activity used to reach a certain goal that is not readily available
|
problem-solving
|
|
|
A step-by-step procedure that always provides the right answer for a particular type of problem
|
algorithm
|
|
|
Cognitive strategies, or "rules of thumb," often used as shortcuts in solving a complex inferential task
|
heuristics
|
|
|
Intermediate steps for solving a problem, where part of the problem is solved with each subgoal
|
subgoals or means-end analysis
|
|
|
Solution to an earlier problem is used to help solve current problem
|
analogy
|
|
|
Starting at a well-defined goal and figuring out the path to the goal from there
|
working backwards
|
|
|
Computers that solve specific problems, usually using algorithms
|
expert systems or artificial intelligence
|
|
|
Putting a problem aside for a while and engaging in some other activity before returning to the problem
|
incubation
|
|
|
Process of trying one solution after another in no particular order until a solution is found
|
trial and error
|
|
|
Inability to solve a problem because the function we assign to objects tends to remain fixed or stable
|
functional fixedness
|
|
|
Tendency to persist with old patterns for problem solving, even when they are not successful
|
mental set
|
|
|
Tendency to confirm rather than refute a problem's hypothesis even when there is strong evidence that the hypothesis is wrong
|
confirmation bias
|
|
|
A thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions
|
divergent thinking
|
|
|
The ability to give the correct answer to standard questions that do not require significant creativity
|
convergent thinking
|
|
|
Problem-solving method where you compare one event to a class of events
|
representative heuristic
|
|
|
A judgment based on the information readily available in memory
|
availability heuristic
|
|
|
When one estimates an event's probability of occurrence and then makes adjustments to that based on additional information
|
anchoring heuristic
|
|
|
When one rates the attributes of each alternative and then selects the alternative that has the highest some of values
|
additive model
|
|
|
Inability to find new uses for familiar objects
|
functional fixedness
|
|
|
A theory that suggests that people attribute a behavior to a causal factor if that factor was present whenever the behavior occurred but was absent whenever it did not occur
|
covariation principle
|
|
|
The tendency to avoid decision making; the tougher the decision, the greater the likelihood of decision aversion
|
decision aversion
|
|
|
The uncomfortable feeling caused by holding two contradictory ideas simultaneously
|
cognitive dissonance
|
|
|
The process by which people form opinions, reach conclusions, and make critical evaluations of events and people based on available material; also, the product of that mental activity
|
judgment
|
