Psychology Key Terms

Front 1

Behavioral Perspective:

Back 1

Emerged from the pioneering work of Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner. Emphasizes Observable behavior that can be objectively measured.

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Humanistic Perspective:

Back 2

Emerged from the pioneering work of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Emphasizes the importance of self-esteem. Free will, and choice.

Front 3

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Perspective:

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Emerged from the pioneering work of Sigmund Freud. Emphasizes the role of unconscious conflicts in determining behavior and personality.

Front 4

Cognitive Perspective:

Back 4

Influenced by the computer revolution , the cognitive perspective compares the mind to a computer that encodes processes and store information. Cognitive Psychology emphasizes thinking, perceiving, and information processing.

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Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Perspective:

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Emerged from the pioneering work of Sigmund Freud. Emphasizes the role of unconscious conflicts in determining behavior and personality.

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Evolutionary Perspective:

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Influenced by the seminal writing of Charles Darwin. Emphasizes the role played by natural selection and adaptation in the evolution of behavior and mental processes.

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Experimental Method:

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A carefully controlled scientific procedure involving the manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect. The experimental method enables researchers to determine cause and-effect relationships.

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Independent Variable:

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The factor that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter.

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Dependent Variable:

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The factor that is measured by the experimenter. It is affected by and thus depends on, the independent variable.

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Experimental Group:

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Group that is exposed to all experimental condition, including the independent variable

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Control Group:

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Group that is exposed to all experimental conditions except the independent variable.

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Confounding Variable:

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Variables that have an unwanted influence on the outcome of an experiment. Also known as extraneous variables.

Front 13

Double-Blind Study:

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A procedure in which neither the researcher nor the participants knows which group received the experimental treatment. Designed to reduce experimenter bias.

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Case Study:

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An in depth examination of a single research participant.

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Correlation Research:

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The researcher observes of measures two or more naturally occurring variables to find the relationship between them in correlation research the researcher does not directly manipulate the variables.

Front 16

Correlation Coefficient:

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A numerical value from +1.00 to -1.00 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables. A positive correlation indicates that the two variables move or vary in the same direction. A negative correlation indicates that the two variables move or vary in opposite directions. A zero correlations indicates that there is no relationship between the two variables.

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Mean:

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A measure of central tendency that provides the average score. Any change in the highest score in a distribution must result in a change in the mean.

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Median:

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A measure of central tendency that divides a frequency distribution exactly in half.

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Standard Deviation:

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A measure of variability that indicates the average differences between the scores and their mean.

Front 20

Normal Distribution:

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A bell-shaped curve describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population. In a normal distribution, half the scores fall at or above the mean and half the scores fall at or below the mean.

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Positively Skewed Distribution:

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Contains a preponderance of scores on the low end of the scale. The mean will be higher than the median in a positively skewed distribution.

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Negatively Skewed Distribution:

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Contains a preponderances of scores on the high end of the scale the mean will be lower than the median in a negatively skewed distribution.

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P Value:

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The probability of concluding that a difference exists when in fact the difference does not exist. A statistically significant difference is a difference not likely due to chance. By consensus a statistically significant difference is one that would show up only 5 percent of the results.

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Neuron:

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A highly specialized nerve cell responsible for receiving and transmitting information in electrical and chemical forms. Neurons are the fundamental building blocks of the nervous system.

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Myelin Sheath:

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A white, fatty covering wrapped around the axons of some neurons, which increases the rate at which nerve impulses travel along the axon.

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Action Potential:

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A brief electrical impulse by which information is transmitted along the axon of a neuron.

Front 27

All-Or-Nothing Law:

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The principle that either a neuron is sufficiently stimulated and an action potential occurs or a neuron is not sufficiently stimulated and an action potential does not occur.

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Endorphins:

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Chemical substances in the nervous system that reduce perception of pain.

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Neurotransmitters:

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Chemical transmitters manufactured by a neuron. For example acetyl-choline is associated with Alzheimer's disease, dopamine is linked to schizophrenia, and serotonin is related to depression.

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Sympathetic Nervous System:

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Branch of the autonomic nervous system that produces rapid physical arousal in response to perceived emergencies or threats.

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Parasympathetic Nervous System:

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Branch of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, maintains bodily functions, and conserves energy.

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Hypothalamus:

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A small brain structure beneath the thalamus that helps govern the release of hormones by the pituitary gland and regulates drives such as hunger and thirst.

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Cerebral Cortex:

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A thin surface layer on the cerebral hemispheres that regulates most complex behavior, including sensations, motor control and higher mental processes such as decision making.

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Cerebral Hemispheres:

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The nearly symmetrical left and right halves of the cerebral cortex., The left hemisphere specializes in verbal and analytical functions. The right hemisphere focuses on nonverbal abilities such as are and music and visual recognition tasks.

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Corpus Callosum:

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The bundle of nerve fibers connecting the brain's left and right hemispheres. In a procedure known as split-brain surgery, neurosurgeons cut the corpus Callosum to prevent the spread of epileptic seizures by disrupting communication between the right and left hemispheres.

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Amygdala:

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An almond-shaped part of the limbic system linked to the regulation of emotional responses, especially fear.

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Hippocampus:

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A curved fore-brain structure that is part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming new memories.

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Absolute Threshold:

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The minimum intensity at which a stimulus can be detected at least 50 percent of the time. For example, humans can barely detect a candle flame from 30 miles away on a clear, dark night.

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Sensory Adaptation:

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The decline in sensitivity to a constant stimulus. For example, the longer an individual is exposed to a strong odor the less aware of the odor the individual becomes.

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Transduction:

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The process by which sensory receptors convert the incoming physical energy of stimuli, such as light waves, into neural impulses that the brain can understand.

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Signal Detection Theory:

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States that sensation depends on the characteristics of the stimulus the background stimulation , and the detector. Selective attention enables you to filter out and focus on only selected sensory messages. For example while practicing your piano you may not hear your cell phone ring however, if your expecting an important call, you will hear the cell phone ring.

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Gate-Control theory:

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Theory that explains how the nervous system blocks or allows pain signals to pass to the brain.

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Rods:

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The long thin visuals receptor cells in the retina that are highly sensitive to light, but not to color. The rods are primarily responsible for peripheral vision and black-and-white vision. Cats have better night vision than humans because they have a higher proportion of rods to cones.

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Cones:

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The short, thick visual receptor cells, concentrated near the center of the retinal, responsible for color vision and find detail people who are color blind typically have deficiencies in their cones.

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Blind-Spot:

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The point at the back of the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye. Since there are no visual receptor cells, this creates a small gap in field vision called the blind spot.”

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Cochlea:

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The coiled, snail-shaped structure in the inner ear containing receptors for hearing.

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Circadian Rhythm:

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Biological processes that systematically vary over a period of about 24 hours. For example the sleep wake cycle, blood pressure, and pulse rate all follow circadian rhythms.

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Rem Sleep:

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Type or sleep during which rapid eye movements (REM) and dream usually occur. REM sleep is often referred to as paradoxical sleep because it is simultaneously characterized by active eye movements and loss of muscle movement. The REM portion of the sleep cycle is longest during infancy.

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Hypnosis:

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A trance like state of heightened suggestibility, deep relaxation and intense focus. Hypnosis can be used to treat pain.

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Dissociation:

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The splitting of consciousness into two or more simultaneous streams of mental activity.

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Classical Conditioning:

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Based upon the pioneering work of Ivan Pavlov. The learning process that occurs when a previously neutral stimulus ( a ringing bell) is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus(food) to elicit a conditioned response(salivation).

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Unconditioned Stimulus:

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A natural stimulus (food) that reflexively elicits a response (salivation) without the need for prior learning.

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Unconditioned Response:

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An unlearned response (salivation) that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus (food).

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Neutral Stimulus

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A stimulus (ringing bell) that produces no conditioned response prior to learning.

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Conditioned Stimulus:

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The conditioned stimulus was originally the neutral stimulus. When Systematically paired with the unconditioned stimulus (food) the neutral stimulus (the ringing bell) becomes a conditioned stimulus as it gains the power to cause a response.

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Extinction:

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The gradual weakening of a conditioned behavior when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

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Stimulus Generalization:

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Occurs when stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus also elicit the conditioned response. For example a three year-old child is frightened by white rabbit a few days later the same child see a white fur coat and becomes frightened.

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Stimulus Discrimination:

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The ability to distinguish between two similar stimuli. For example, a person who is fearful of poison oak leaves but not of oak tree leaves is exhibiting stimulus discrimination.

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Operant Conditioning:

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A learning process in which behavior is shaped and that follow a response. In contrast, in classical conditioning behavior is controlled by the stimuli that precede a response.

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Reinforcement:

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Reinforcement strengthens a response and makes it more likely to occur.

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Positive Reinforcement:

Back 61

A situation in which a behavior or response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus. The stimulus increases the probability that the response will occur again.

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Negative Reinforcement:

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A situation in which a behavior or response is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus. Negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior by enabling a person to either escape an existing aversive stimulus or avoid an aversive stimulus before it occurs.

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Premack Principle

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States that the opportunity to engage in a preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity.

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Continuous Reinforcement:

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A reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced.

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Shaping:

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The technique of strengthening behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of a behavior until the entire correct routine is displayed. Think of bird doing more and more for food.

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Intermittent Reinforcement

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The rewarding of some but not all, correct responses.

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Fixed Ratio Schedule:

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Reinforcement occurs after a predetermined set of responses. For example you, are paid for every two lawns you mow.

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Variable Ratio Schedule:

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Reinforcement is unpredictable because the ratio varies. For example, casino slot machines use a variable ratio schedule.

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Punishment:

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Punishment is a process in which a behavior is followed by an aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated.

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Positive Punishment:

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Adding an aversive stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur.

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Negative Punishment:

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Taking away a stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur.

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Observational Learning:

Back 72

Occurs by watching others and then imitating or mo­deling the observed behavior.

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Recall:

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The use of a general cue to retrieve a memory. For example you psychology teacher asks you to write down everything you learned in last week's lesson on operant conditioning.

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Recognition:

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The use of a specific cue to retrieve a memory. For example your psychology teacher asks you to answer a multiple-choice question about negative reinforcement.

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Serial-Position Effect:

Back 75

Information at the beginning and end of a list is remembered better than material in the middle. This is why a choir teacher may put both good songs in the beginning and end and the worst one in the middle.

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Episodic Memory:

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A subdivision of declarative memory that stores memories of personal experiences and events. For example, your first piano recital, first prom, and first varsity soccer goal are all episodic memories.

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Proactive Interference:

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Occurs when old information interferes with recalling new information. For example, your old locker combination interferes with remembering your new locker combination.

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Retroactive Interference:

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Occurs when new information interferes with recalling old information. For example learning how to write an SAT essay interferes with the information you previously learned about how to write an ACT essay.

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Retrograde Amnesia:

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People who suffer from retrograde amnesia are unable to remember some or all of their past.

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Anterograde Amnesia:

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People who suffer from anterograde amnesia are unable to form new memories.

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Method Of Loci:

Back 81

The process of remembering several pieces of information by mentally associating an image of each with a different location. Imagine a memory test now take each object and put them in a room in your house. When asked to recant the object you take a mental stole though your house and name the objects you see.

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Phonemes:

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The smallest distinctive sound used in a language for example, the t in tardy and ng in sing are both phonemes.

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Morphemes:

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The smallest units of meaning in a language. For example, the word untouchable consists of three morphemes- the prefix un, the root word touch, and the suffix able. To my understanding basically the roots of the word.

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Algorithm:

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A logical, step-by-step procedure that, if followed correctly, will eventually solve a specific problem.

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Functional Fixedness:

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The tendency to think of an object as functioning only in its usual or customary way. As a result, individuals often do not see unusual or innovative uses of familiar objects. Due to thinking a pencil is a pencil maybe I am missing one of its uses?

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Confirmation Bias:

Back 86

A preference for information that confirms pre existing positions of beliefs, while ignoring or discovering contradictory evidence. A solution to this is the double-blind study. An example of this would be “Christian Science”.

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Heuristic:

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A general rule of thumb or shortcut that is used to reduce the number of possible solutions. An example would be calculus and many of tools you will used to help make the problems shorter.

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Availability Heuristic:

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Judging the likelihood of an event based on readily available personal experiences or new reports. For example news of a plane crash causes a family to cancel their plane reservation and drive 750 mile in a car instead.

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Representative Heuristic:

Back 89

Judging the likelihood of an event based on how well it matches a typical example or prototype. For example, if Jake is six foot four. And weighs two ninety pounds, we may guess that he is an NFL lineman instead of a stockbroker. Basically using passed knowledge to make educated guesses.

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Divergent Thinking:

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A type of thinking in which problem solvers devise a number of possible alternative approaches. Divergent thinking is a major element in creativity.

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Yerkes-Dodson Law:

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An optimal level of psychological arousal helps performances. When arousal is too low, our minds wander and we become bored. When arousal is too high, we become too anxious and “freeze-up.”People are thus motivated to seek a moderate level of stimulation that is neither too easy not too hard.

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Maslow”s Hierarchy of Needs:

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Maslow”s theory that lower motives(such as physiological and safety needs) must be met before advancing to higher needs (such as esteem and self-actualization).

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Achievement Motivation:

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The drive to succeed, especially in competition with others. Individuals who have a strong need for achievement seek out tasks that are moderately difficult.

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Extrinsic Motivation:

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Based upon external rewards or threats of punishment. For example, James tutors other students because he wants to earn money.

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Internal Motivation:

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Based on personal enjoyment of a task or activity. For example Robbie tutors others students because he enjoys helping them.

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Display Rules:

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Cultural norms that influence how and when emotional responses are displayed.

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James-Lange Theory:

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Our subjective experience of emotion follows our experience of physiological changes (”We feel sorry because we cry”).

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Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory:

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Physical arousal and cognitive labeling of that arousal produce our subjective experience of emotion.

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Stress:

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An Emotional response to demands that perceived as threatening or exceeding a person's resources or ability to cope.

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Conflict:

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Occurs when a person is forced to choose between two or more opposing goals or desires. Conflict can be classified as approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance or approach-avoidance.

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General Adaptation Syndrome:

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Hans Selye's three-stage (alarm,resistance,exhaustion) reaction to chronic stress.

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Longitudinal Method:

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Measures a single individual or group of individuals over and extended period of time. This is a hard way due too it taking life spans of time.

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Cross-sectional Method:

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Compares individuals of various ages at one point in time.

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Schema:

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A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

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Assimilation:

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The process of absorbing new information into an existing schema.

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Accommodation:

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The process of adjusting old schemas or developing new ones to incorporate new information.

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Object Permanence:

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An infant's understanding that objects or people continue to exist even when they cannot be directly seen, heard or touched.

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Irreversibility:

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The child' s inability to mentally reverse a sequence of events or logical operations.

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Conservation:

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Understanding that certain physical characteristics (such as volume or density) remain unchanged, even when their outward appearance changes.

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Permissive Style Of Parenting:

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Parents set few rules, make minimal demands and allow children to reach their own conclusions.

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Authoritative Style of Parenting:

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Parents set firm rule, make reasonable demands, and listen to their child's viewpoint while still insisting on responsible behavior.

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Authoritarian Style Of Parenting:

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Parents set rigid rules, enforce strict punishments, and rarely listen to their child's point of view.

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Psychosocial Stages:

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Erik Erikson's theory that individuals pass through eight developmental stages, each involving a crisis that must be successfully resolved.

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The ID:

Back 114

According to Freud, the id is completely unconscious. It consists of innate sexual and aggressive instincts and drives. The id is impulsive, irrational, and immature. It operates on a pleasure principle, seeking to achieve immediate gratification and avoid discomfort.

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The SuperEgo:

Back 115

According to Freud, the superego is partly conscious. It consists of internalized parental and societal standards. The superego operates on a morality principle, seeking to enforce ethical conduct.

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The Ego:

Back 116

According to Freud, the ego resides in the conscious and precociousness levels of awareness. The ego is rational and practical. It operates on a reality principle, seeking to mediate between the demands of the id and the superego.

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Defense Mechanisms:

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In Freudian theory, the ego's protective method of reducing anxiety and distorting reality. Best Example I can think of is when you think you know an answer but you do not know it.

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Variable Interval Schedule:

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Reinforcement that forces a behavior to occur due to the subject not knowing the next reinforcement. Example would be pop quiz.

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Fixed Interval Schedule:

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Reinforcement that comes in a fixed schedule. Examples include paychecks.

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Repression:

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Freud's first and most basic defense mechanism. Repression prevents unacceptable impulses from coming into conscious awareness. Repress your feelings forever!

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Self-Efficacy:

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The Feelings of self-confidence or self-doubt that people bring to a specific situations.

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Locus of Control:

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Individuals who accept personal responsibility for their life experiences have an internal locus of control. Individuals who believe that most situations are governed by chance have an external locus of control. Me versus Hassan.

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Five-Factor Model:

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Trait theory of personality that includes openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

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Psychoanalysis:

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Freudian therapy designed to bring unconscious conflict which usually date back to childhood experiences, into consciousness.

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Cognitive Therapy:

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Therapy that treats problem behaviors and mental processes by focusing on faulty thought processes and beliefs.

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Rational Emotive Therapy:

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Albert Ellis’s cognitive therapy to eliminate emotional problems through the rational examination of irrational beliefs.

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Humanistic Therapy:

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Focuses on removing obstacles that lock personal growth and potential.

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Client-Centered Therapy:

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Carl Rogers’s therapy emphasizing the client’s natural tendency to become healthy and productive. Key techniques include empathy, unconditional positive regard, and active listening.

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Behavior Therapy:

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Group of techniques that use the principles of classical conditioning, operant learning, and observational learning to modify maladaptive behaviors.

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Systematic Desensitization:

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A gradual process of extinguishing a learned phobia by working through a hierarchy of fear-evoking stimuli while staying deeply relaxed.

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Aversion Therapy:

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Uses the principles of classical conditioning to create anxiety by pairing an aversive stimulus with a maladaptive behavior.

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Biomedical Therapy:

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Uses drugs and electroconvulsive therapy to treat psychological disorders.

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Fundamental Attribution Error:

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The widespread tendency to overemphasize dispositional factors and to underestimate situational factors when making attributions about the cause of another person’s behavior.

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Self-serving Bias:

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The widespread tendency for people to take credit for the successes while at the same time attributing their failures to external situations beyond their control. A perfect example of this would be the mayor from under the dome.

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Central Route to Persuasion:

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When people make decisions based upon factual information logical arguments, and a thoughtful analysis of pertinent details. For example, you buy a cell phone based upon its price and number of available applications.

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Peripheral Route to Persuasion:

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When people make decisions based upon emotional appeals and incidental cues. For example you buy a cell phone based upon its color and catchy sales slogans. IPHONE

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Foot-In-The-Door Phenomenon:

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The persuasion strategy of getting a person to agree to a modest first request as as a set-up for a later much larger request.

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Cognitive Dissonance:

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The state of psychological tension, anxiety, and discomfort that occurs when an individual's attitude and behavior are inconsistent.

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Social Facilitation:

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The tendency for an individual’s performance to improve when simple or well-rehearsed tasks are performed in the presence of others.

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Biological Perspective:

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Emphasizes genetics. The roles of various parts of the brain, and the structure and function of individual nerve cells.

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Social Inhibition:

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The tendency for an individual's performance to decline when complex or poorly learned tasks are performed in the presence of others.

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Social Loafing:

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The phenomenon of people making less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group rather than when they work alone.

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Deindividuation:

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The reduction of self-awareness and personal responsibility that can occur when a person is part of a group whose members feel anonymous. I detest this Term.

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Bystander Effect:

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The tendency for individuals to be less likely to assist in an emergency situation when other people are present.

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Group Think:

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The tendency for a cohesive decision-making group to ignore or dismiss reasonable alternatives.

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Conformity:

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The Tendency for people to adopt the behavior, attitudes, and beliefs of other members of a group. Chan Culture.

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Obedience:

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The performance of an action in response to the direct orders of an authority or person of higher status.

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G factor:

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The notion, proposed by Charles Spearman, of a general intelligence factor that is responsible for a person’s overall performance.

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Fluid Intelligence:

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Aspects of innate intelligence, including reasoning abilities, memory, and speed. of information processing, that are relatively independent of education and tend to decline as people age

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Crystallized Intelligence:

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Knowledge and skill gained through experience and education that tend to increase over the life span.

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Reliability:

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Measure of consistency and reproducibility of test scores and during repeated administrations of a test

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Validity:

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The ability of a test to measure that is is designed to measure what it is designed to measure.

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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy:

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Observations or behaviors that result primarily form expectations.

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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR):

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Classification system developed by the American Psychiatric Association used to describe abnormal behaviors. The “IV-TR” indicate it is the text revision (TR) of the fourth major revision. (IV).

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Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder:

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Characterized by persistent, repetitive, and unwanted thoughts(obsessions) and behaviors (compulsions).

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Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder:

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Characterized by intense feelings of anxeity, horror and helplessness after experiencing a traumatic event such as a violent crime, natural disaster, or military combat.

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Bipolar Disorder:

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Characterized by periods of both depression and mania.

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Somatoform Disorders:

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Characterized by physical complaints about conditions that are caused by psychological factors

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Schizophrenia:

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Group of severe disorders involving major disturbances in perception, language, thought, emotion and balance. Delusional beliefs, hallucinations, and disorganized speech and thought are three key characteristic symptoms.

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Narcissistic Personality Disorder:

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Characterized by a grandiose sense of self-importance fantasies of unlimited success, need for excessive admiration, and a willingness to exploit others to achieve personal goals.

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Dissociative Disorders:

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Involve a splitting apart of significant aspects of a person’s awareness, memory, or identity. Dissociative amnesia is characterized by a partial or total inability to recall past experiences and important information. Dissociative fugue is characterized by suddenly and inexplicably leaving home and taking on a completely new identity with no memory of a former life. Dissociative identity disorder (DID) is characterized by the presence of two or more distinct personality systems in the same individual.