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360 Cards in this Set
- Front
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Introspection
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The careful, systematic self-observation of one's own conscious experience
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Structuralism
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Based on the idea that the point of pyschology is to analyze consciousness into it's basic elements and investigate how these elements are related
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Functionalism
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Based on the belief that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness and not its structure
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Behaviorism
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The idea that scientific psychology should study only observable behaviour
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Nature vs. Nurture
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Two forms of looking at behaviour. One states that we are dictated by nature, other states that it is our nurturers who shape us
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Unconscious Mind
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The idea that we have thoughts, desires, and memories below the surface of conscious awareness
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Humanism
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A theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans including freedom and personal growth
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Central Premise
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natural selection occurs for behavioural, as well as physical, characteristics
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Cognition
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mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge
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Empiricism
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The premise that knowledge should be acquired through observation. Psychologists conduct scientific research to TEST their ideas.
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Ethnocentrism
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Viewing one’s own group as superior and as the standard for judging
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Positive Psychology
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Positive Psychology uses theory and research to better understand the positive, aspects of human existence.
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Theory
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A system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations
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Phrenology
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Discredited theory that different brain areas account for specific personality traits
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Operational Definition
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Used to clarify precisely what is meant by each variable
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Participants
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The organisms whose behaviour is systematically observed in a study
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Data Collection Techniques
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Allow for empirical observation and measurement
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Statistics
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Used to analyze data and decide whether hypotheses were supported
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Research Methods
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General strategies for conducting scientific studies
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Scientific Investigation
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1) Formulate a testable hypothesis
2) Select the research method and design 3) Collect the data 4) Analyze the data and draw conclusions 5) Report the findings |
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Experiment
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Manipulation of one variable under controlled conditions so that resulting changes in another variable can be observed
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Independent Variable
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Variable manipulated
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Dependent Variable
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Variable affected by manipulation (How does x affect y?)
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Experimental Group
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Subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable
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Control Group
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Similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment
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Extraneous Variables
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Any variable other than the independent variable in a specific study
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Confounding Variables
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Occurs when two variables are linked together in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects
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Pseudo-independent variables
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A variable that can’t be manipulated, but can be measured (like gender), control of confounding variables, or sampling bias
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Naturalistic Observation
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When a researcher engages in careful observation of behaviour without intervening directly with the subjects. Example: do more men than women run yellow lights?
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Case Studies
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An in-depth investigation of an individual subject
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Survey
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Researchers use questionnaires or interviews to obtain specific information about subjects’ behaviour
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Descriptive Statistic
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Organizing and summarizing data
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Inferential Statistic
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Interpreting data and drawing conclusions
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Measures of central tendency
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Typical or average score in a distribution
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Mean
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Arithmetic average of scores
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Median
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Score falling in the exact centre
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Mode
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Most frequently occurring score
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Variability
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How much scores vary from each other and from the mean
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Standard Deviation
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Numerical depiction of variability
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High Variability in a data set
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High standard deviation
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Low Variability in a data set
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Low standard deviation
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Correlation
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Numerical index of degree of relationship. Expressed as a number between 0 and 1, can be positive or negative. Numbers closer to 1 (+ or -) indicate stronger relationship
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Correlation coefficient
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Numerical index of the degree relationship between two variables
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Hypothesis
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Tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables
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Statistical significance
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Exists when the probability that the observed findings are due to chance is very low
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Meta-analysis
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The combination of the statistical results of many studies of the same question, yielding an estimate of the size and consistency of a variables effects
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Sampling Bias
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Exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn
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Placebo Effect
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Occurs when particpants expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive fake treatment
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Social Desirability Bias
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A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself
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Response Set
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A tendency to respond to questions in a way that is unrelated to the content of the questions
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Halo Effect
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The tendency to let initial performance or liking affect future judgments of performance
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Experimenter Bias
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When a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained
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Double-blind solution
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Neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental and which are in the control groups is used. In this case, a non-directly involved researcher keeps track of everything
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Morris Water Maze-swimming memory maze
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a behavioral procedure widely used in behavioral neuroscience to study spatial learning and memory. The basic procedure for the Morris water navigation task is that the rat is placed in a large circular pool and is supposed to find an invisible platform that allows it to escape the water.
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Knock-out Mice
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a genetically engineered mouse in which researchers have inactivated, or "knocked out", an existing gene by replacing it or disrupting it with an artificial piece of DNA
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Stroop Interference Task
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Cognitive task designed to study mental flexibility, unconscious processing, etc. Takes advantage of our ability to read words more quickly and automatically than we can name colors
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Damage Studies
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Observing consequences of damage to certain areas
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Lesioning
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Involves destroying a piece of the brain
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Electroencephalography (EEG)
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Monitoring electrical activity of the brain
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Electrical Stimulation (ESB)
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is a form of electrotherapy and technique used in research and clinical neurobiology to stimulate a neuron or neural network in the brain through the direct or indirect excitation of its cell membrane by using an electric current
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Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
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A new technique that permits scientists to temporarily enhance or depress activity in a specific area of the brain
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Computerized tomography (CAT)
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computer enhanced X-ray
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Positron emission tomography (PET)
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radioactively tagged chemicals serve as markers of blood flow or metabolic activity in the brain that are monitored by X-ray
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Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
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uses magnetic fields, radio waves, and computer enhancement to image brain structure
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Central Nervous System (CNS)
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Consists of the brain and the spinal cord
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Peripheral Nervous System
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Made up of all the nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord.
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Somatic Nervous System
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Made up of nerves that connect to the voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors
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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
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Made up of nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands
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Sympathetic Division
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The branch of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body's resources for emergencies
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Parasympathetic Division
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The branch of the autonomic nervous system that generally conserves bodily resources
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Hindbrain
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vital functions – medulla, pons, and cerebellum
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Midbrain
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sensory functions – dopaminergic projections, reticular activating system
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Forebrain
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emotion, complex thought – thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, cerebrum, cerebral cortex
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Cerebral Hemispheres
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two specialized halves connected by the corpus collosum
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Left Hemisphere
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verbal processing: language, speech, reading, writing
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Right Hemisphere
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nonverbal processing: spatial, musical, visual recognition
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Four lobes
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Occipital, Parietal, Temporal, Frontal
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Occipital
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vision
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Parietal
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somatosensory
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Temporal
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auditory
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Frontal
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movement, experimental control systems
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Limbic System
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a loosely connected network of structures located roughly along the border between cerebral cortex and deeper subcortical areas
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The Case of HM
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lost approximately two-thirds of his hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus, and amygdala in 1953. Total amnesia for new memories BUT: could still learn new Motor tasks
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Thalamus
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Structure of the forebrain through which all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex
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Hypothalamus
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A structure found near the base of the forebrain that is involved in the regulation of basic biological needs (hunger, thirst, body temp, immune system, etc.)
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Brainstem
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Essential for life. Controls breathing, heartbeat, sleep/wake, food digestion, and speak articulation
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Amygdala
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Part of the limbic system involved in emotion and aggression
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Cerebellum
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Structure that cordinates fine muscle movement, balance
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Neurons
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Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information. (Soma, Dendrites, and Axons)
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Soma
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contains the cell nucleus and much of the chemical machinery common to most cells
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Dendrites
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the parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information
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Axon
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A long, thin fibre that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons or muscles or glands
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Glia
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Cells found throughout the nervous system that provide various types of support for neurons
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Myelin Sheath
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Speeds up transmission
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Terminal Button
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end of axon; secretes neurotransmitters
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Synapse
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point at which neurons interconnect
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Action Potential
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a brief shift in a neuron's electrical charge that travels along an axon
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Postsynaptic potential (PSP)
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A voltage change at a receptor site on a postsynaptic cell membrane
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Excitatory PSP
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positive voltage shift that increases the likeliehood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potentials
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Inhibitory PSP
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a negative voltage shift that decreases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potentionals
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All or None Law
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The integration of signals will cause the cell to fire if a critical membrane threshold is reached. Once the cell “decides to fire”, the cell will fire and can not be stopped from firing.
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Neural Networks
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Interconnected neurons that fire together or sequentially
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Synaptic Pruning
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Elimination and creation. "Use it or lose it".
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Neurotransmitters
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Chemicals that carry messages from one neuron to another across the synapse
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Neurotransmission
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the process by neurotransmitters are released by the presynaptic neuron, and bind to and activate the receptors of the postsynaptic neuron
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Receptors
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Protein molecules that receive and translate the chemical message
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Agonists
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mimic the action of the neurotransmitter. Fit the receptor; keep the neurotransmitter around longer
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Antagonist
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opposes action of a neurotransmitter
Block the receptor |
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The Endocrine System
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Consists of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream
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Endocrine Glands
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Pituitary – “master gland,” growth hormone
Thyroid - metabolic rate Adrenal - salt and carbohydrate metabolism Pancreas - sugar metabolism Gonads - sex hormones |
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Leptin
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Fat hormone
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Behavioral Genetics
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the study of the influence of genetic factors on behavioural traits
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Chromosomes
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strands of DNA carrying genetic information. Human cells contain 46 of them in pairs
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Dominate Gene
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A gene expressed when paired genes are different
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Recessive Gene
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A gene masked when paired genes are different
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Homozygous condition
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two genes in a specific pair are the same
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Heterozygous condition
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two genes in a specific pair are different
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Genotype
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Refers to a person's genetic makeup.
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Phenotype
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Refers to the ways in which a person's genotype is manifested into observable characteristics
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Polygenic Inheritance
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traits or characteristics influenced by more than one pair of genes
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Molecular Genetics
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the study of the biochemical bases of genetic inheritance
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Absolute Threshold
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The stimulus intensity that can be dectected 50% of the time
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Basilar Membrane
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holds the auditory receptors
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Cochlea
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a fluid-filled, coiled tunnel that contains the receptors for hearing
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Pinna
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The external ear that collects sound.
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Colour Blindness
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absence or dysfunction of one or more cones
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Cones
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Specialized visual receptors that allow us to filter bright light, detailed colour, and black and white. Green, Blue, and Red
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Convergence
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the act of eyes moving closer together to focus on closer objects
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Depth Perception
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interpretation of visual cues that indicate how near or far away an object looks
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Fechner’s Law
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Expressing the relationship between the intensity of the sensation and the intensity of the stimulus
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Frequency Theory
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The perception of pitch corresponds to the frequency, at which the entire basilar membrane vibrates, causing the auditory nerve to fire at different rates for different frequencies. The brain detects the frequency of a tone by the rate at which the auditory nerve fires.
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Just Noticeable Difference
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The smallest difference in stimulation that can reliably be detected by an observer when two stimuli are compared
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Kinesthetic System
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Knowing the position of the various parts of the body
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Lens
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Transparent eye structure that focuses the light rays falling on the retina
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Light adaptation
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The process where the eyes become less sensitive to light in high-illumination.
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Monocular Depth Cues
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Clues about distance based on the image
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Olfactory System
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The sensory system for smell
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Opponent Process Theory
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The idea that colour perception depends on receptors that make antagonistic responded to three pairs of colours. Red vs Green | Yellow vs Blue | Black vs White
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Perceptual Constancy
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The tendency to experience a stable perception in the face of continually changing sensory input.
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Phi Phenomenon
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The illusion of movement created by presenting visual stimuli in rapid succession.
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Place Theory
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Perception of pitch corresponds to the vibration of different portions or places along the basilar membrane
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Pupil
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The opening in the center of the iris that helps regulate the amount of light passing into the rear chamber of the eye
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Rods
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Specialized visual receptors that are sensitive to dim light and are unable to convey the sense of colour.
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Threshold
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A dividing threshold between energy levels that do and do not have a detectable effect
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Vestibular System
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The system that keeps your sense of balance
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Circadian Rhythms
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The rhythm at which the body resets itself for sleep using light
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Signal detecting theory
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Sensory processes + decision processes
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Sensory Adaptation
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Decline in sensitivity
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Subliminal Perception
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Literally means “the perception of stimuli below a threshold”.
Existence vs. practical effects |
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Sense receptors
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Specialized cells that convert physical energy in the environment or the body to electrical energy that can be transmitted as nerve impulses to the brain
Dendrites of sensory neurons responsible for smell, pressure, pain, & temperature |
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The retina
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Absorbs light, processes images, and sends information to the brain
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Optic Disk
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Where the optic nerve leaves the eye/ blind spot
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Information processing
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Receptive fields and Lateral Antagonism
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Five primary tastes
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sweet, sour, bitter, salty and umami
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Umami
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Highly savory; it is activated by MSG.
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Supertasters
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individuals who have more taste buds, and smaller papilla. Find some foods unpleasantly bitter
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Ototoxicity
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The quality of being toxic to the ear. Ototoxic drugs can include some antibiotics, some chemotherapy agents, and some nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
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Skin senses
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Physical stimuli = mechanical, thermal, and chemical energy impinging on the skin
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pain receptors
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Nociceptors
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Sleep stages
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REM
NREM sleep (1,2,3,4). Slow Wave Sleep=3+4 |
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Brain Structures during sleep
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Ascending reticular activating system
Pons, medulla, thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system |
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Trichromatic theory
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The human eye has three types of receptors with differing sensitivies to different light wavelengths
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Electrooculograph (E0G)
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records eye movements
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Electromyograph (EMG)
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records muscular activity and tension
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Hypnosis
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A systematic procedure that typically produces a heightened state of suggestibility
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Insomnia
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Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep.
Dependence on sleeping pills and shifts in the circadian rhythms can also result in insomnia. |
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Lucid Dreams
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Free dreaming, things seem to flow from one thing to the next
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Narcolepsy
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Falling asleep uncontrollably
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Narcotics
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A form of drug that creates a sleep-inducing effect
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Neurogensis
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The formation of new neurons
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Night Terrors
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Intense arousal and panic during NREM
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Nightmares
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Anxiety-arousing dreams during REM
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REM Behaviour Disorder
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Disorder of REM sleep paralysis
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Sleep Apnea
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Reflexive gasping for air that awakens the sleeper
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Somnambulism
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Sleepwalking during NREM
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Stimulants
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Stimulants are a group of drugs that speed up the brain
Some stimulants are very addictive, such as cocaine and nicotine |
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Neurotransmitters for Sleep
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Acetylcholine and serotonin
Also norepinephrine, dopamine, histamine, orexin and GABA |
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Observational learning
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Occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models
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Mirror Neurons
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Neurons that are activated by performing an action or by seeing another monkey or person perform the same action
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Prospective Memory
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Involves remembering to perform actions in the future
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Semantic Memory
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Contains general knowledge that is not tied to the time the information was learned
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Episodic Memory
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Made up of chronological or temporarily dated recollections of personal experience
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Encoding
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Involves forming a memory code
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Cocktail Party Effect
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The idea of blocking out all sounds of a party to focus on an individual conversation
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Encoding Levels
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Structural, Phonemic, Semantic
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Structural level
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shallow
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Phonemic level
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intermediate
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Semantic level
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deep
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Enriching encoding
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Elaboration, Visual Imagery, Self-Referent Encoding
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Elaboration
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linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding
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Visual Imagery
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creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered
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Self-Referent Encoding
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Making information personally meaningful
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Subdivided Memory
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Sensory, Short-term, Long-term
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Analogy
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information storage in computers information storage in human memory
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Sensory Preservation
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Brief preservation of information in original sensory form, usually only a fraction of a second
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Short Term
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Limited capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for about up to 20 seconds
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Rehearsal
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the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information
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Long Term
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unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time
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Working Memory Capacity
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Refers to one's ability to hold and manipulate information in conscious attention
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Decay Theory
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Encoded but the memory has faded overtime
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Proactive Interference
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occurs when previously learn information interferes with the retention of new information
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Retroactive Interference
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occurs when new information impairs the retention of previously learned information
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Flashbulb Memories
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characterized by surprise, illumination, and seemingly photographic detail
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Clustering
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the tendency to remember similar or related items in groups
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Schemas
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An organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experiene with the object or event
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Semantic Networks
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consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related pathways
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Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP)
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modeld assume cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks
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Procedural Memories
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memories for the performance of actions or skills (“knowing how”)
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Declarative Memories
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memories of facts, rules, concepts, and events (“knowing that”)
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Semantic Memory
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general knowledge, including facts, rules, concepts, & propositions
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Episodic Memory
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personally experienced events & the contexts in which they occurred
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Serial Position Effect
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The tendency for recall of the first and last items on a list to surpass recall of items in the middle of the list
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Primary Effect
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recall will be best for items at beginning of list
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Regency Effect
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recall will be best for items at end of list
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Retrieval
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Getting Information Out of Memory
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Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve
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Memorized nonsense words. Tested how many were remembered after different time intervals
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Retention
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the proportion of material retained
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Recall
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reproduce the material without any cues
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Recognition
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select previous learned material from an array
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Relearning
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learn or memorize a second time and measure how much faster it is than the first time
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Ineffective Coding (pseudo-forgetting)
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not forgotten, but never encoded
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Retrieval Failure
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Failure to retrieve a memory that was successfully stored
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Repressed Memories
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Motivated Forgetting and the Unconscious
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Seven Sins of Omitting (signs of omission)
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Transience, absent-mindedness, blocking
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Seven Sins of Omitting (signs of commissions)
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Misattribution, suggestibility, persistence, bias
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Hindsight Bias
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tendency to mould interpretation of past to fit how events turned out
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Overconfidence Effect
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being overly confident about reliability of memory
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Aplysia
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Medium-sized to extremely large sea slugs, studied as a model organism by neurobiologists, because its siphon-withdrawal response is mediated by electrical synapses, which allow several neurons to fire synchronously
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Neural Circuitry
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Neural circuitry. Localized neural circuits. Reusable pathways in the brain (neurogenesis)
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Long Term Potentiation
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Enhanced synaptic transmission after electrical stimulation of a cell. Leads to changes in dendritic length and spine density
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Anterograde Amnesia
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Memory for events that occur subsequent to the onset of amnesia suffers.
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Retrograde Amnesia
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memory for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia is lost
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Frontal Lobe (memory)
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linked to STM tasks
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Hippocampal (memory)
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activity during declarative LTM tasks
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Encoding words & pics
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Prefrontal cortex & adjacent areas to Hippocampus
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Procedural Memories: Cerebellum
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linked to changes in cerebellum
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Cerebal Cortex (memory)
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involved in formation of LTM
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Implicit Memory
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Implicit memories caused areas in the visual cortex to be relatively inactive.
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Explicit Memory
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Explicit memory for dot patterns they had seen earlier, activated areas in the visual cortex, temporal loges, and frontal lobes
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Baby Brain
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Pregnant women show increased performance for spatial and working memory, but decrease for verbal memory, prospective memory (remembering to do something)
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Childhood (infantile) Memory
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The inability to remember events and experiences that occurred during the first two or three years of life
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Postnatal Brain Development
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The brain develops throughout childhood and adolescents and adult neurogenesis does occur.
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Properties of Language
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Symbolic, semantic, generative, structured
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Symbolic Language
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spoken sounds and written combinations of letters to represent things, actions, and ideas
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Semantic Language
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meaningful
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Generative Language
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limited number of symbols can be combined in a nearly infinite number of ways
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Structured Language
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infinite number of sentences, but they must follow certain rules to be meaningful.
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Hierarchical Structure of Language
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Phonemes, Morphemes, Semantics, Syntax, Allophones
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Phonemes
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smallest speech units. 100 possible, English – about 40
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Morphemes
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smallest unit of meaning. 50,000 in English, root words, prefixes, suffixes
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Semantics
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meaning of words and word combinations
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Syntax
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Syntax = a system of rules for arranging words into sentences. Different rules for different languages
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Allophones
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Allophones - Phones that belong to the same phoneme
For example, tip and dip illustrate that [t] and [d] are separate phonemes, /t/ and /d/, in English |
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Linguistic Diversity
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Languages differ in important ways from one another.
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Linguistic Influence of Thought
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The structure and lexicon of one's language influences how one perceives and conceptualizes the world
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Problem Solving
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Seeking to attain a goal without knowing how
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Problem Space
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“the set of possible pathways to a solution considered by a problem solver”
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Types of Problems
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Inducing Structure, Arrangement, Transformation
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Inducing Structure
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Outlining the relationships among numbers, words, symbols, or ideas
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Arrangement
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Organizing parts to satisfy some criterion
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Transformation
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Carrying out a sequence to reach a specific goal
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Problem Solving Process
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1)Form initial problem representation; 2) try to plan potential solution; 4)execute plan and check results. If step two fails, try to reformulate the problem(3), and if that fails take a break and return to step 3.
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Heuristic
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guiding principle or "rule of thumb" used in solving problems or making decisions
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Algorithm
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any method that guarantees a solution to a problem
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Common Barriers
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Irrelevant Information, Functional Fixedness, Mental Set, Unnecessary Constraints
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Irrelevant information
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Focusing on information that is not relevant for solving a specific problem
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Functional Fixedness
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Tendency to perceive an item in terms of its most common use only
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Candle Problem
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This type of problem is usually solved with a sudden burst of insight
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Mental Set
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Insistence on using solutions that worked in the past
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Unnecessary Constraints
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Imposing restrictions on a problem without need
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Changing the representation
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First instinct on the way to represent a problem may not be the simplest one
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Incubation Effect
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When a problem is resistant to your efforts, sometimes taking a break is helpful.
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The nine-dot problem
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Without lifting your pencil from the paper, draw no more than four lines that will cross through all nine dots
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Representing the bird and train problem
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The typical inclination is to envision this problem spatially
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Field Dependence
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relying on external frames of reference
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Field Independence
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– relying on internal frames of reference
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Field dependence-independence
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Orienting oneself in space with external versus internal frames of reference/ Likelihood to accept versus restructure physical environment
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Holistic
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relationships among elements in context
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Analytic
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objects and their properties
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Making choices about preferences
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Additive Strategies, Elimination by aspects, Comparative vs. separate evaluations, Judgments of quality, Risky decision making
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Additive Strategies
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list attributes, choose the one that has the most positive attributes
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Elimination by aspects
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eliminate choices that have more negative attributes
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Risky Decision Making
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Expected value, subjective utility, subjective probability
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Expected Value
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People behave inconsistently
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The paradox of choice
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A 2004 book by American psychologist Barry Schwartz. In the book, Schwartz argues that eliminating consumer choices can greatly reduce anxiety for shoppers.
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Maximal Freedom
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Having more choices doesn’t make us happier and can lead to dissatisfaction
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Preference Choosing
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Additive, Elimination by aspects
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Complexities
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Comparative vs. Separate Judgments, Extraneous Factors (expectations)
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Comparative vs. Separate Judgments
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Make many choices through comparison with other choices, yet experience results of choice in isolation
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Extraneous Factors (expectations)
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Expectations – “people really do get what they pay for”
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Probability Heuristics
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Availability heuristic, Representative heuristic
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Availability heuristic
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ease of relevant instances to mind
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Representative heuristic
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similarity to a prototype
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Gambler’s Fallacy
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Belief that the odds of a chance event increase if it has not occurred recently. Assumption works over the long run, but does not apply to independent events
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Law of small numbers
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Tendency to underestimate the greater variability of small samples (plus willingness to generalize from a few cases). Likelihood of misleading results is greater with small sample than with large one – people appreciate this in the abstract sense, yet are still influenced by the bias
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Overestimating the probable
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Tendency to overestimate the likelihood of infrequent yet salient (dramatic, vivid) events. Reflects availability heuristic – exposure to high media coverage of deaths from tornadoes and homicides (versus low coverage of deaths from asthma and suicides)
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Confirmation Bias
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Tendency to seek information that confirms one’s hypothesis, while ignoring information that would disconfirm it. Contributes to Belief Perseverance – tendency to hang on to beliefs even in the face of contradictory evidence
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Belief Perseverance
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the tendency to hold onto ones beliefs even after receiving new information that contradicts or disconfirms the original belief.
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Overconfidence Effect II
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Tendency to put too much faith in one’s own estimates, beliefs, and decisions
More confident = more overconfident |
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Framing
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How decision issues are posed/how choices are structured
Language/context matters Experiment in textbook (Kahneman & Tversky, 1984) “Easier to forsake a gain than to absorb a loss” |
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Heuristics in Judging Probabilities
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The availability heuristic
The representativeness heuristic The tendency to ignore base rates The conjunction fallacy The alternative outcomes effect |
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The Monty Hall Problem
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Illustrates that people often make inaccurate probability estimates
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Paradox
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Humans rational and irrational
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Conjuction Fallacy
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tendency to estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than either event happening alone
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Fast and Frugal heuristics
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people do not have enough time, resources or cognitive capacity to make optimal decisions in real world
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Adaptive problems
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specialized cognitive mechanisms evolve to solve specific adaptive problems
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Affect Heuristic
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tendency for current emotion to bias the way information is processed
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Dual Process Theory
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might explain evolutionary perspective results – one system automatic and intuitive, the other controlled and elaborate
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Cartesian Dualism
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states that there are two fundamental kinds of substance: mental and material.
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Traveling Wave Theory
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The idea that whole basilar membrane does move, but the waves peak at particular places, depending on frequency. Combined Frequency and Place Theory into one.
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Brain Waves
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Amplitude (height)
Frequency (cycles per second) |
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Brain Frequency
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Beta (13-24 cps)
Alpha (8-12 cps) Theta (4-7 cps) Delta (<4 cps) |
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Circadian Clock
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Circadian clock is deep in the brain in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus
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Sperling's experiment (1960)
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After the participants had fixated on the cross, the letters were flashed on the screen just long enough to create a visual afterimage. High, medium, and low tones signalled which row of letters to report. Because subjects had to rely on the afterimage to report the letters, Sperling was able to measure how rapidly the afterimage disappeared by varying the delay between the display and the signal to report.
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LAD
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Innate language acquisition devise
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B.F Skinner (1904-1990)
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Believed that people are a product of their environment and that free will is an illusion. Championed the idea of a strict focus on observable behaviour only.
Principle of reinforcement: Operant chamber, Emission of response, Reinforcement contingencies, Cumulative recorder (1953). Mental constructs not necessary to describe behavior. children acquire language through conditioning and imitation. |
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Wilhem Wundt (1832-1920)
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Campaigned to make psychology an independent discipline. Brought the scientific methods of physiology to bear on philosophical questions. Developed the first laboratory in psychology at the University of Leipzig in 1879
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G.Stanley Hall (1846-1924), Johns Hopkins University
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Established the first psychology laboratory in the U.S. in 1883
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James Mark Baldwin and James Gibson Hume (UoT)
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helped to establish the American Psychological Association in 1892
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Edward Titchener
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led the idea of Structrualism
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William James
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led the idea of functionalism. the “stream of consciousness.” Basically that our internal and external stimuli (including events, internal sensations, thoughts, etc.), is constantly changing.
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John B. Watson (1878-1958)
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Founder of Behaviourism
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Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), austria
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Founded Psychoanalytic school of thought
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Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
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led the idea of Humanism
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Dr. Brenda Milner
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made crucial contributions to psychology in the areas or memory and neuropsychology
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Donald Hebb
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University received his Ph.D from Harvard University and published his seminal book The Organization of Behaviour: A Neuropsychological Theory, in 1949. This book challenged the then dominant behaviourist models and set the stage for contemporary developments in cognition and neuroscience.
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James Olds (1956)
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Electrical stimulation of the brain evokes emotional responses in animals
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Roger Sperry (1981)
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Left and right brain specialization
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David Buss, Martin Daly, Margo Wilson, Leda Cosmides, and John Tooby
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led the new evolutionary psychology movement. Basically gave life to the first new theoretical perspective in psychology. While the perspective is gaining in influence, many critics hold that the theory is untestable and based on post hoc accounts for obvious behavioural phenomena.
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Dr. Wilder Penfield
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A pioneering neurosurgeon once dubbed "the greatest living Canadian. expanded brain surgery's methods and techniques, including mapping the functions of various regions of the brain.
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William Scoville
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removed parts of HM's brain on September 1, 1953
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Hodgkin & Huxley (1952)
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discovered the mechanics of neural transmission by studying giant squid…
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Richard Rose (1995)
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“We inherit dispositions, not destinies.”
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René Descartes
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Cartesian Dualism. Consciousness required a soul that interacted with the physical brain at the pineal
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Daniel Dennett
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“Consciousness Explained”
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Weber's Law
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size of JND proportional to size of initial stimulus
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Georg von Bekesy
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The two theories of Place and Frequency were reconciled by traveling wave theory.
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Gustav Fechner
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The creator of the concept of the threshold and JND
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Ivan Pavlov
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a prominent Russian physiologist in the early 1900’s, who did Nobel prize winning research on digestion, discovered (partly by accident) that dogs will salivate in response to the sound of a tone. In doing so, he discovered classical, sometimes called Pavlovian, conditioning.
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Albert Bandura (1977, 1986)
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classic “Bobo Doll” experiments. Outlined the theory of observational learning. Bandura distinguishes between acquisition (having the response in your repertoire) and performance (actually engaging in the behaviour). Bandura asserts that reinforcement usually influences already acquired responses, more than the acquisition of new responses.
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Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971)
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proposed that memory is made up of three information stores: sensory, short term, and long term
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George Miller (1956)
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wrote a famous paper called “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information," where he illustrated that the average person can hold between 5 and 9 chunks of information in STM. Presented his famous paper arguing for the 7 plus or minus 2 capacity of STM
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Peterson and Peterson (1959
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conducted a study illustrating how quickly information is lost from STM.
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Baddeley (1986)
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4 components of working memory: Phonological rehearsal loop, Visuospatial sketchpad, Executive control system, Episodic buffer
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Noam Chomsky
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Nativist theorists. outlined a new model that changed the study of language. Humans have innate language skills that are universal / Innate language acquisition devise (LAD)
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Simon and Newell
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described the first computer program simulating human problem solving
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Patricia Kuhl
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co-director of the Institute for Brain and Learning Sciences at the University of Washington. TED TALKS
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Allen and Beatrice Gardner (1969)
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successful at teaching a chimpanzee, Washoe, to use ASL. In fact, Washoe developed a vocabulary of about 160 words, combining them into simple sentences, but showing little evidence of mastering the rules of language.
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Sue Savage-Rumbaugh
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has reported striking advances with the bonobo pygmy chimpanzees. These bonobos have been trained to use geometric symbols that represent words on a computer-monitored keyboard. Kanzi, the star pupil, has taught his younger sister much that he has learned about this system. Kanzi has acquired hundreds of words and has used them in thousands of combinations, many apparently spontaneous and rule governed. In addition, his receptive language appears much more developed, as he was able to carry out 72% of 660 spoken requests such as “Pour the Coke in the lemonade."
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Francine Patterson
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Lowland gorillas Koko and Michael
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Greeno (1978)
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Three basic classes: Problems of inducing structure, Problems of arrangement, Problems of transformation
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Richard Nisbett
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proposed a cultural distinction between broader patterns of thinking: Holistic and Analytic
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Barry Schwartz
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“The Paradox of Choice”
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Cosmides and Tooby (1996)
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Specialized cognitive mechanisms evolve to solve specific adaptive problems
Unrealistic standard of rationality. Decision making evolved to handle real-world adaptive problems. Problem solving research based on contrived, artificial problems |
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Gigerenzer (2000)
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Quick and dirty heuristics. Less than perfect but adaptive
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Gigerenzer (2008)
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people do not have enough time, resources or cognitive capacity to make optimal decisions in real world
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Antonio Damasio
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argued that emotion is necessary to make rational decisions. Key for dismantling of emotion/reason dichotomy
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Kahneman & Tversky (1984)
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“Easier to forsake a gain than to absorb a loss”
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Hubel and Wiesel
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Microelectrode recording of axons in primary visual cortex of animals. Discovered feature detectors: neurons that respond selectively to lines, edges, etc. Later research: cells specific to faces in the temporal lobes of monkeys and humans
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Edward L. Thorndike
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The law of effect states that if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened
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