Psychology Final

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personality

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the relatively stable constellation of psychological characteristcs and behavioral patterns that account for our individuality and consistency over time.

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psychoanalytic theory

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freud's theory of personality, which holds that personality and behavior are shaped by unconscious forces and conflicts

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conscious

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in freudian theory, the part of the mind corresponding to the state of present awareness

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preconscious

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to freud, the part of the mind whose contents can be brought into awareness through focused attention

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unconscious

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in freudian theory, the part of the mind that lies outside the range of ordinary awareness and thta contains primitive drives or instincts and unacceptable urges, wishes, or ideas.

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id

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freud's term for the psychic structure existing in the unconscious that contains our basic animal drives and instinctual impulses

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ego

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freud's term for the psychic structure that attempts to balance the instinctural demands of the id with social realities and expectations

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superego

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freud's term for the psychic structure that corresponds to an internal moral guardian or conscience.

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pleasure principle

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in freud's theory, a governing principle of the id that is based on demand for instant gratification without regard to social rules or customs.

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reality principle

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in freudian theory, the governing principle of the ego that takes into account what is practical and acceptable in satisfying basic needs.

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defense mechanisms

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in feudian theory, the reality-distorting strategies of the ego to prevent awareness of anxiety-evoking or troubling ideas or impulses

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repression

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in freudian theory, a type of defense mechanism involving motivated forgetting of anxiety-evoking material

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denial

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in freudian theory, a defense mechanism involving the failure to recognize a threatening impulse or urge.

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reaction formation

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in freudian theory, a defense mechanism involving behavior that stands in opposition to one's true motives and desires so as to prevent conscious awareness of them.

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rationalization

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in freudian theory, a defense mechanism involving the use of self-justification to explain away unacceptable behavior, impulses, or ideas.

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projection

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in freudian theory, a defense mechanism involving the projection of one's own unacceptable impulses, wishes, or urges, onto another person

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sublimation

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in freudian theory, a defense mechanism involving the channeling of unacceptable impulses into socially sanctioned behaviors or interests

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regression

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in freudian theory, a defense mechanism in which an individual, usually under high levels of stress, reverts to a behavior characteristic of an earlier stage of development

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displacement

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in freudian theory, a defense mechanism in which an unacceptable sexual or aggressive impulse is transferred to an object or person that is safer or less threatening than the original objects of the impulse

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erogenous zones

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parts of the body that are especially sensitive to sexual or pleasurable stimulation

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fixations

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constellations of personality traits characteristic of a particular stage of psychosexual development, resulting from either excessive or inadequate gratification at that stage

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oral stage

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in freudian theory, the first stage of psychosexual development, during which the infant seeks sexual gratification through oral stimulation (sucking, mouthing, and biting)

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anal stage

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in freudian theory, the second stage of psychosexual development, during which sexual gratification is centered on processes of elimination (retention and release of bowel contents)

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anal-retentive personality

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in freudian theory, a personality type characterized by perfectionism and excessive needs for self-control as expressed through extreme neatness and punctuality

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anal-expulsive personality

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in freudian theory, a personality type characterized by messiness, lack of self-discipline, and carelessness

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phallic stage

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in freudian theory, the third stage of psychosexual development, marked by erotic attention on the phallic region (penis in boys, clitoris in girls) and the development of the Oedipus complex.

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Oedipus Complex

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in freudian theory, the psychological complex in which the young boy or girl develops incestuous feelings toward the parent of the opposite gender and perceives the parent of the the same gender as a rival

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Electra complex

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the term given by some psychodynamic theorists to the form of the Oedipus complex in young girls.

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castration anxiety

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in freudian theory, unconscious fear of removal of the penis as punishment for having unacceptable sexual impulses

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penis envy

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in freudian theory, jealousy of boys for having a penis

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latency stage

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in freudian theory, the fourth stage of psychosexual development, during which sexual impulses remain latent or dormant

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genital stage

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in freudian theory, the fifth and final stage of psychosexual development, which begins around puberty and corresponds to the development of mature sexuality and emphasis on procreation

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personal unconscious

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jung's term for an unconscious region of mind comprising a resesrvoir of the individual's repressed memories and impulses

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collective unconscious

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in jung's theory, a part of the mind containing ideas and archetypal images shared among humankind that have been transmitted genetically from ancestral humans

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arechetypes

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jung's term for the primitive images contained in the collective unconscious that reflect ancestral or universal experiences of human beings

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individual psychology

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adler's theory of personality, which emphasizes the unique potential of each individual

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creative self

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in adler's theory, the self-aware part of personality that organizes goal-seeking efforts

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inferiority complex

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in adler's theory, the feelings of inadequacy or inferiority in young children that influence their developing personalities and create desires to overcome

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drive for superiority

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adler's term for the motiviation to compensate for feelings of inferiority.

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basic anxiety

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in horney's theory, a deep-seated form of anxiety in children that is associated with feelings of being isolated and helpless in a world perceived as potentially threatening and hostile.

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basic hostility

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in horney's theory, deep feelings of resentment that children may harbor toward their parents.

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traits

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relatively enduring personal charactistics

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cardinal traits

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allport's term for the more pervasive dimensions that define an individual's general personality

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central traits

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allport's term for personality characteristics that have a widespread influence on the individual's behavior across situations

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secondary traits

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allport's term for specific traits that influence behavior in relatively few situations

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surface traits

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cattell's term for personality traits at the surface level that can be gleaned from observations of behavior

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source traits

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cattell's term for traits at a deep level of personality that are not apparent in observed behavior but must be inferred based on underlying relationships among surface traits

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introversion-extraversion

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one of the three underlying dimensions of personality in Eysenck's model, referring to tendencies toward being solitary and reserved on teh one end or outgoing and sociable on the other end

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neuroticism

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one of the three underlying dimensions of personality in Eysenck's model, referring to tendencies toward emotional instability, anxiety, and worry

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psychoticism

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one of the three underlying dimensions of personality in Eysenck's model, referring to tendencies to be perceived as cold and antisocial

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five-factor model

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the dominant contemporary trait model of personality, consisting of five broad personality factors: neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness.

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social-cognitive theory

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a contemporary learning-based model that emphasizes the roles played by both cognitive factors and environmental or situational factors in determining behavior

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expectancies

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in social-cognitive theory, personal predictions about the outcomes of behavior

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subjective value

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in social-cognitive theory, the importance that individuals place on desired outcomes

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locus of control

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in rotter's theory, one's general expectancies about whether one's efforts can bring about desired outcomes or reinforcements

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reciprocal determinism

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bandura's model in which cognitions, behaviors, and environmental factors both influence and are influenced by each other.

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outcome expectations

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bandura's term for our personal predictions about the outcomes of our behavior

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efficacy expectations

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bandura's term for the expectancies we have regarding our ability to perform behaviors we set out to accomplish

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situation variables

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mischel's term for environmental influences on behavior, such as rewards and punishments

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person variables

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mischel's term for internal personal factors that influence behavior, including competencies, expectancies, and subjective values.

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self-theory

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rogers's model of personality which focuses on the importance of the self

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unconditional positive regard

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valuing another person as having intrinsic worth, regardless of the person's behavior at the particular time

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conditional positive regard

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valuing a person only when the person's behavior meets certain expectations or standards

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self-ideals

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rogers's term for the idealized sense of how or what we should be

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collectivistic culture

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a culture that emphasizes people's social roles and obligations

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individualistic culture

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a culture that emphasizes individual identity and personal accomplishments

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phrenology

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the now-discredited view that one can judge a person's character and mental abilities by measuring the bumps on his or her head

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personality tests

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structured psychological tests that use formal methods of assessing personality

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self-report personality inventories

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structured psychological tests in which individuals are given a limited range of response options to answer a set of questions about themselves

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objective tests

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tests of personality that can be scored objectively and that are based on a research foundation

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standard scores

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scores that represent an individual's relative deviation from the mean of the standardization sample

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projective tests

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personality tests in which ambiguous or vague test materials are used to elicit responses that are blieved to reveal a person's unconscious needs, drives, and motives

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hallucinations

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perceptions experienced in the absence of external stimuli

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delusions

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fixed but patently false beliefs, such as believing that one is being hounded by demons

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culture-bound syndromes

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psychological disorders found in only one or a few cultures

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Dhat syndrome

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a culture-bound syndrom found in Indian in which men develop intense fear about losing semen

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medical model

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a framework for understanding abnormal behavior patterns as symptoms of underlying physical disorders or diseases

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biopsychosocial model

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an integrative model for explaining abnormal behavior patterns in terms of the interactions of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors

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diathesis-stress model

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a type of biopsychosocial model that relates the development of disorders to the combination of a diathesis, or predisposition, usually genetic in origin, and exposure to stressful events or life circumstances

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diathesis

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a vulnerability or predisposition to developing a disorder

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psychological disorders

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abnormal behavior patterns characterized by disturbances in behavior, thinking, perceptions, or emotions that are associated with significant personal distress or impaired functioning

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anxiety disorders

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a class of psychological disorders characterized by excessive or inappropriate anxiety reactions

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phobias

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excessive fears of particular objects or situation

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social phobia

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a type of anxiety disorder involving excessive fear of social situations

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specific phobia

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phobi reactions involving specific situations or objects

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acrophobia

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excessive fear of heights

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claustrophobia

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excessive fear of enclosed spaces

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agoraphobia

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excessive, irrational fear of being in public places

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panic disorder

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a type of anxiety disorder involving repeated episodes of sheer terror called panic attacks

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gerneralized anxiety disorder (GAD)

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a type of anxiety disorder involving persistent and generalized anxiety and worry

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obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

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a type of anxiety disorder involving the repeated occurrence of obsessions and/or compulsions

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anxiety sensitivity

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fear of fear, involving excessive concern that anxiety cymptoms will spin out of control

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dissociative disorders

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a class of psychological disorders involving changes in consciousness, memory, or self-identity

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somatoform disorders

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a class of psychological disorders involving physical ailments or complaints that cannot be explained by organic causes

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dissociative identity disorder (DID)

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a type of dissociative disorder characterized by the appearance of multiple personalities in the same individual

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conversion disorder

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a type of somatoform disorder characterized by a change or a loss of a physical function that cannot be explained by medical causes

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hypochondriasis

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a somatoform disorder in which there is excessive concern that one's physical complaint are signs of underlying serious illness.

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secondary gain

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the reward value of having a psychological or physical symptom, such as release from ordinary responsibilities

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mood disorders

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a class of psychological disorders involving disturbances in mood states, such as major depression and bipolar disorder

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major depressive disorder

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the most common type of depressive disorder, characterized by periods of downcast mood, feelings of worthlessness, and loss of interest in pleasurable activities

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seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

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a type of major depression that involves a recurring pattern of winter depressios followed by elevations of mood in the spring and summer

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dysthymic disorder

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a type of psychological disorder characterized by mild but chronic depression

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bipolar disorder

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a type of mood disorder characterized by mood swings from extreme elation (mania) to sever depression

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manic episodes

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periods of mani, or unusually elevated mood and extreme restlessness

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cyclothymic disorder

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a mood disorder characterized by a chronic pattern of relatively mild mood swings

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learned helplessness model

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the view that depression results from the perception of a lack of control over the reinforcements in one's life that may result from exposure to uncontrollable negative events

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attributional style

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a person's characteristic way of explaining outcomes of events in his or her life

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depressive attributional style

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a characteristic way of explaining negative events in terms of internal, stable, and global causes

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disinhibition effect

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the removal of normal restraints or inhibitions that serve to keep impulsive behavior in check

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schizophrenia

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a severe and chronic psychological disorder characterized by disturbances in thinking, perception, emotions, and behavior

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psychotic disorder

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a psychological disorder, such as schizophrenia, characterized by a "break" with reality

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thought disorder

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a breakdown inteh logical structure of through and speech, revealed in the form of a lossening of associations

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positive symptoms

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symptoms of schizophrenia involving behavioral excesses, such as hallucinations and delusions

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negative symptoms

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behavior deficits associated with schizophrenia, such as withdrawal and apathy.

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disorganized type

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a subtype of schizophrenia characterized by confused behavior and disorganzed delusions, among other features

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catatonic type

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a subtype of schizophrenia characterized by bizarre movements, postures, or grimaces

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waxy flexibility

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a feature of catatonic schizophrenia in which people rigidly maintain the body position or psture in which they were place by others

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paranoid type

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the most common subtype of schizophrenia, characterized by the appearance of delusional thinking accompanied by frequent auditory hallucinations

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personality disorders

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a class of psychological disorders characterized by rigid personality traits that impair people's ability to adjust to the demands they face in the environment and that interfere with their relationships with others

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narcissistic personality disorder

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a type of personality disorder characterized by a grandiose sense of self

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paranoid personality disorder

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a type of personality disorder characterized by extreme suspiciousness or mistrust of others

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schizoid personality disorder

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a type of personality disorder characterized by social aloofness and limited range of emotional expression

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borderline personality disorder

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a type of personality disorder characterized by unstable emotions and self-image

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antisocial personality disorder

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a type of personality disorder characterized by callous attitudes toward others and by antisocial and irresponsible behavior

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moral therapy

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a philosophy of treatment that emphasized treating mentally ill people with compassion and understanding, rather than shackling them in chains.

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deinstitutionalization

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a policy of reducing the population of mental hospitals by shifting care from inpatient facilities to community-based outpatient facilities.

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psychotherapy

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a verbal form of therapy derived from a psychological framework that consists of one or more treatment sessions with a therapist

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psychoanalysis

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freud's method of psychotherapy; it focuses on uncovering and working through the unconscious conflicts he believed were at the root of psychological problems

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psychoanalysts

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practitioners of psychoanalysis who are schooled in the freudian tradition

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free association

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a technique in psychoanalysis in which the clients is encouraged to say anything that comes to mind

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dream analysis

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a technique in psychoanalysis in which the therapist attempts to analyze the underlying or symbolic meaning of the client's dreams

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interpretation

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in psychoanalysis, the attmept by the therapist to explain the connections between the material the client discloses in therapy and his or her unconscious conflicts

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insight

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in freud's theory, the awareness of underlying, unconscious wishes and conflicts

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resistance

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in psychoanalysis, the blocking that occurs when therapy touches upon anxiety-evoking thoughts or feelings

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transference relationship

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in therapy, the tendency of clients to reenact earlier conflicted relationships in the relationship they develop with their therapists

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countertransference

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the tendency for therapists to relate to clients in ways that mirror their relationships with important figure in their own lives

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behavior therapy

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a form of therapy that involves the systematic application of the principles of learning

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systematic desensitization

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a behavior therapy technique for treating phobias through the pairing of exposure in imagination to fear-inducing stimuli and states of deep relaxation

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fear hierarchy

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an ordered series of increasingly fearful objects or situations

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gradual exposure

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a behavior therapy technique for treating phobias based on direct exposure to a series of increasingly fearful stimuli

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modeling

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a behavior therapy technique for overcoming phobias and acquiring more adaptive behaviors, based on observing and imitating models

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aversive conditioning

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a form of behavior therapy in which stimuli associated with undesirable behavior are paired with aversive stimuli to create a negative reponse to these stimuli

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cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

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a form of therapy that combines behavioral and cognitive treatment techniques

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rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT)

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developed by Albert Ellis, a form of psychotherapy based on identifying and correcting irrational beliefs that are believed to underlie emotional and behavioral difficulties

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cognitive therapy

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developed by Aaron Beck, a form of therapy based on a collaborative effort between clients and terapists that helps clients recognize and correct distored patterns of thinking believed to underlie their emotional problems

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eclectic therapy

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a therapeutic approach that draws upon principles and techniques representing different schools of therapy

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group therapy

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a form of therapy in which clients are treated within a group format

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family therapy

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therapy for troubled families that focuses on changing disruptive patterns of communication and improving the ways in which family members relate to each other

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couple therapy

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therapy that focuses on helping distressed couples resolve their conflicts and develop more effective communication skills

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meta-analysis

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a statistical technique for averaging results across a large numbers of studies

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nonspecific factors

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general features of psychotherapy, such as attention from a therapist and mobilization of positive expectancies or hope

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placebo effects

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positive outcomes of an experiment resulting from participants' expectations about the effects of a treatment rather thanfrom the experimental treatment itself

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virtual reality therapy

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a form of behavior therapy in which virtual reality is used to simulate real-world environments that can be used as therapeutic tools

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psychotropic drugs

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psychiatric drugs used in the treatment of psychological or mental disorders

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antianxiety drugs

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drugs that combat anxiety

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antidepressants

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drugs that combat depression by affecting the levels or activity of neurotransmitters in the brain

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tricyclics

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a class of antidepressant drugs that increase the availability of neurotransmitters in the brain by interfering with the reuptake of these chemicals by transmitting neurons

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monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors

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a class of antidepressant drugs that increase the availability of neurotransmitters in the brain by inhibiting an enzyme, monoamine oxidase, that breaks down or degrades them in the synapse

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selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

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a class of antidepressant drugs that work specifically on increasing availability of the neurostransmitter serotonin by interfering with its reuptake

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antipsychotics

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drugs used in the treatment of psychotic disorders that help alleviate hallucinations and delusional thinking

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tardive dyskinesia (TD)

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a potentially disabling motor disorder that may occur following regular use of antipsychotic drugs.

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electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

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a form of therapy for severe depression that involves the administration of an electrical shock to the head

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psychosurgery

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brain surgery used to control violent or deviant behavior

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prefrontal lobotomy

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a surgical procedure in which neural pathways in the brain are severed in order to control violent or aggressive behavior