Psychology Exam Chapter 9, Etc.

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cognition

Back 1

the activities that underlie all forms of thought

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phonology

Back 2

the rules for combining sounds to make words

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semantics

Back 3

the rules used in language to communicate meaning

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syntax

Back 4

the rules for combining words to make sentences

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phonemes

Back 5

-the smallest units of language that carry meaning
-produced through a complex coordination of the vocal cords, lungs, lips, tongue, and even the teeth
-english speakers only use about 40-45 phonemes

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morphemes

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-the smalls units of language that carry meaning
-usually consist of single words, but can also be prefixes or suffixes
-cool (1 morpheme), uncool (2 morphemes)
-th grammar of a language dictates the acceptable order of morphemes within a word

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surface structure

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corresphonds to its superficial appearance (the literal ordering of words)

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deep structure

Back 8

-refers to the underlying representation of meaning
-language production requires the transformation of deep structure into acceptable surface structure

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babbling

Back 9

repeating consonant/vowel combinations suchas as "kaka" or "baba" (babies,4-6 months)

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defining feature

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the set of features necessary to make objects acceptable members of a category

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family resemblance

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-another way to think about the idea of typical features
-members of the same category will share certain core features, but it isn't necessary for each member to have them all.
-determined by the collection of core features that an object possesses

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prototype method

Back 12

a prototype is the best or most representative member of a category

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orienting response

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an inborn tendency to notice and respond to novel or surprising events

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habituation

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the decline in the tendency to respond to an event that has become familiar through repeated exposure

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sensitization

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increased responsiveness, or sensitivity, to an even that has been repeated

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ivan pavlov

Back 16

-developed classical condition a set of procedures used to investigate how organisms learn about the signaling properties of events

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unconditioned stimulus

Back 17

stimulus that automatically leads to an observable response prior to any training

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unconditioned response

Back 18

observable response produced automatically, prior to training, on presentation of an unconditional stimulus

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conditioned response

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the acquired response produced by the conditioned stimulus in anticipation of the unconditioned stimulus

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conditioned stimulus

Back 20

the neutral stimulus that is paired with the unconditioned stimulus during classical conditioning
-response to stimuli is learned/conditioned or acquired as a result of experience

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second-order conditioning

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a procedure in which an established conditioned stimulus is used to condition a second neutral stimulus

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stimulus generalization

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responding to a new stimulus in a way similar to the response produced by an established conditioned stimulus

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stimulus discrimination

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responding differently to a new stimulus than how one responds to an established conditioned stimulus
-reveals that yo can distinguish among stimuli, even when those stimuli share properties
-requires that one directly experience whether or not the unconditioned stimulus will follow a particular event

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extinction

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presenting a conditioned stimulus repeadtedly, after conditioning, without the unconditioned stimulus, resulting in a loss in responding
-conditioned responding diminishes when the conditioned stimulus (after conditioning) is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus

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spontaneous recovery

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recovery of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus
--tells us that behavior and performance aren't always perfect indicators of what is known or remembered

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conditioned inhibiton

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learning that an event signals the absence of the unconditioned stimulus
-creating an inhibitory stimulus by presenting a new stimulus when the unconditioned stimulus is normally expected but was not delivered
-you get a reaction that is the opposite of what was produced by a normal conditioned stimulus

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law of effect

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if a response in a particular situation is followed by a satisfying consequence, it will be strengthened
-if a response in a particular situation is followed by an unsatisfying consequence. it will be weakened

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positive reinforcement

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an even that when presented after a response, increases the likelihood of that response
-appetitive stimulus: something the organism likes, needs, or or has an appetite for
-there is an increase in tendency to respond

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negative reinforcement

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an event that, when removed after a response, increases the likelihood of that response occurring again
-occurs when a response allows you to eliminated, avoid, or escape from an unpleasant situation

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positive punishment

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an event that when presented after a response lowers the likelihood of that response occurring again
-occurs when a response leads directly to the presentation of an aversive outcome
-provided the aversive event is intense enough, the response that produced the punishment will tend to disappear rapidly or become suppressed

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negative punishment

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an event that when removed after a response, lowers the likelihood of that response occurring again
-recognized as an effective training procedure for rapidly suppressing an undesirable response

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shaping

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procedure in which reinforcement is delivered for successive approximations of the desired response
-shows that incredibly complex sequences of behavior can be acquired using the successive approximation technique of shaping

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observational learining

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learning by observing the experience of others
-considerable adaptive value

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vicarious reinforcement

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responses acquired through observational learning are especially strengthened through vicarious reinforcement
-a clear parallel exists between the law of effect and observational learning. the difference is that behavior of others is being reinforced