Psychology Exam 3

Front 1

Determinants of Sexuality

Back 1

Biology (e.g., hormones, genetics)
Psychology (e.g., attitudes, emotions, motivations)
Social environment (e.g., group membership, culture)

Front 2

Components of Sexuality

Back 2

Attitudes (i.e., thoughts, feelings, beliefs)
Behaviors (i.e., actions)
Orientations (i.e., direction)

Front 3

Sexology:

Back 3

The study of sexuality

Front 4

Problems unique to sex research

Back 4

1.Representative samples
-Self-selection biases – sex positive attitudes, women
-Demographic bias =white, middle-class, white-collar, educated
Minimal participation with minorities- means we have underrepresented and overrepresented groups.
2. Honesty/accuracy
Socially desirable responses, shame, taboos
3.Difficulty observing

Front 5

Gender Identity
Gender Role

Back 5

– one’s subjective sense of being male or female
– the attitudes/behaviors considered “normal” for someone of a particular sex

Front 6

What are the purposes of sexual behaviors?

Back 6

1. Recreation/enjoyment
2. Intimacy/connection/bonding
3. Procreation

Front 7

Adolescence Sexuality & Socialization

Back 7

Socialization=Sexual double standard
1. Masturbation increase
2.Noncoital sexual expression is common
3.Key time for sex education/communication

Front 8

Sex vs. Gender

Back 8

Sex – biological sex (dna, hormones, reproductive structures

Gender – psychosocial characteristics associated with being male or female

Front 9

Extramarital relationships (in adulthood)

Back 9

Swinging (partner swapping)
Open marriages/relationships
Non-consensual extramarital affairs (approx. 22% globally)

Front 10

Cohabitation

Back 10

(short-term), Domestic partnership

Front 11

Biological Factors of Sex with age

Back 11

Decreased hormone production
Decreased responsiveness, orgasm, etc

Front 12

Sexual Activity with Age

Back 12

Many remain active (sexual contact at least once a month) well into their 80’s or later, adjust to biological changes
Percentage of active adults does decrease with age
Rising incidence of HIV/AIDS in older adults
High rates of unprotected sex, less likely to get tested
Correlates/predictors: earlier levels of activity, sex positive attitudes, higher sex drive, overall health

Front 13

Sexual Problems
Disorders
Types

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Sexual Disorders – difficulty must occur in the context of adequate physical and psychological sexual stimulation

Types
-Desire/arousal, orgasm, pain during intercourse
-Lifelong/acquired
-Generalized (all situations)/situation specific

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Psychological Factors on Sex

Back 14

Hormonal, vascular, neurological problems
Health (e.g., diet, exercise, weight, illness)
Medications

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Physological Factors on Sex

Back 15

Negative learning – shame, guilt
Sexual double standards/gender roles – equality of gender roles
Sexual knowledge
Self-concept/body image
Previous sexual abuse
Relationship problems, stress, emotional difficulties

Front 16

Psychoactive Drugs

Back 16

Substances that act on the nervous system to alter consciousness, modify perceptions, and change moods

Reduce tension, recreation, curiosity, relieve boredom and fatigue, social interactions

Front 17

Tolerance
Physiological dependence
Psychological dependence

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Tolerance – greater dosages needed to achieve same effect

Physiological dependence – the body adjusts to, and depends on, the presence of the drug

Psychological dependence – the psychological need or craving for the drug for emotional reasons

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Hallucinogens

Back 18

(a.k.a., psychedelics)
*Modify perceptive experiences. Work on Seratonin.

LSD, PCP, Cannabis

Front 19

Opiates

Back 19

(a.k.a., narcotics)
Depress CNS, reduce Physical sensation. Bind to endorphins (endogenous Opiodes) receptor sites.

Morphine, heroine

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Stimulants

Back 20

*Increase Seratonin, Dopamine. Stimulates CNS

Amphetamines, methamphetamines, MDMA, cocaine, nicotine, caffeine

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Depressants

Back 21

*Decrease Mental Activity, reduces Nerual transmission

Barbiturates, benzodiazepines, alcohol

Front 22

MDMA (Ecstasy)
LSD
Marijuana

Back 22

MDMA (Ecstasy) – stimulant & hallucinogenic
Memory, cognitive processing, kills serotonergic axons (depression)

LSD – serotonin & dopamine
Mood swings, attention, memory

Marijuana – not specific NT – variety of NT and hormones
Excitatory (heart rate), depressive (blood pressure, coordination), and mildly hallucinatory characteristics (distorted perceptions)

Front 23

Cause of Munchies
-Cannabinoids
-Endocannabinoids

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Cannabinoids=active chemical in marijuana

Endocannabinoids (e.g., anandamine) =
Appetite, mood, pain-sensations
play a role in regulating food consumption (increase appetite) & reward systems in the brain
Make people seek foods that are sweet and taste good (i.e., junk foods)

Front 24

Opiates

Back 24

-Reduce physical sensation and response to stimulation, -depress CNS activity
-Bind to endorphin (endogenous opiods) receptor sites
=Euphoria, pain-free
Highly addictive!!!!
Very painful withdrawal!!!!

Front 25

Stimulants

Back 25

Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines, MDMA
Increase CNS activity, increase NT levels (e.g., norepinepherine, serotonin, dopamine)
Increases self-confidence, greater energy, hyperalertness, mood alterations approaching euphoria
Moderate to high risks of dependence

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Depressants
Barbiturates (sleep aids, sedatives)
Benzodiazepines –
Alcohol

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Barbiturates (sleep aids, sedatives)
Decrease CNS activity
Addictive, potent – risk for overdose
Benzodiazepines – tranquilizers (e.g., Xanax)
reduce anxiety, relaxation

Front 27

How does alcohol affect the CNS? What neurotransmitter does it act on?

Back 27

GABA!!!
Increases Gaba and depresses neural activity. It makes you less inhibited and less capable of regulating behaviors.

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Motives for Drinking

Back 28

1. Social Motives
It’s what your friends do, You want to be sociable
2. Enhancement Motives
It’s fun, you like how it feels
3. Coping Motives (more negative outcomes)
Relax, deal with stress, forget worries

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Personality & Motives

Back 29

Extraverts= social & enhancement
Conscientious= less; social & enhancement
Neuroticism =coping

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What differentiates being a little quirky from disordered behavior?

Back 30

Psychological Disorders=
Emotional, behavioral, or cognitive patterns that are
1. deviant
2. distressing
3. maladaptive.
-Not all components are present in all disorders

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Deviant

Back 31

Atypical behaviors that violate (or deviate from) social norms
Cultural expectations

Atypical behaviors ≠ disorder
ex= having a lot of tattoos

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Distressing

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1. Atypical periods of distress (prolonged, lack of) if you take 2 years to get over an ex
2. Distress as a result of the behavioral, emotional, or cognitive pattern

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Maladaptive (2 components)

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1. Impairment= Disrupts one’s ability to function effectively in the world
-Disrupts Relate to other people
-Disrupts Accomplish/achieve
2. Potentially Harmful/Dangerous
-Risky behaviors
-Self-destructive
-Potential harm to others

Front 34

DSM-IV Classification System

Back 34

Multiaxial system – classifies the individual based on 5 dimensions

See table for the 5 axis**

Front 35

Problems with Diagnosing Psychological Disorders

Back 35

1. By diagnosing someone you are Reducing the level of responsibility they need to take for behavior

2. Problems with Over-diagnosis, confusion of everyday problems with serious mental disorders example=ADHD

3. Labeling – stigma, self-fulfilling prophecies You engage in behaviors that you are told will happen/expect will happen. I have major depressive disorder so I’m ultimately going to crawl in bed and never get out. Subconsciously do what you believe is ‘supposed’ to happen.

4. Illusion of objectivity – culturally defined standards. What is devient in one culture may not be in another.

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Anxiety

Back 36

A negative mood state that is characterized by diffuse, vague, highly unpleasant feelings of fear, dread, or apprehension
Jittery, nervous, muscle tension

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Anxiety Disorders

Back 37

-Anxiety is uncontrollable either the level of anxiety or onset.
-Level of anxiety is unreasonable/disproportionate depending on the situation
-PERSISTENT anxiety disrupts functioning example: inability to leave the house.

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Generalized Anxiety Disorder

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General feeling of worry, apprehension, and anxiety that persists for at least 6 months with no identifiable source

1.More females (2/3) than males
2.Earlier and more gradual onset than other anxiety disorders

Front 39

Panic Disorder

Back 39

Recurrent, sudden onsets of intense fear (terror) and apprehension
Heart palpitations, shortness of breath, chest pains, trembling, dizziness, sweating, choking, fear of dying

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Panic Disorder example: Agorophobia

Back 40

Additional fears focused on public places and the inability to escape a situation
Prevalence: Approx. 2.7% (2/3 female)
Onset: Early adulthood, typically between 20 and 24

Front 41

Specific Phobias

Back 41

Exaggerated, unrealistic/irrational fear of a specific situation, activity, or object
Anxiety and/or fear when thinking about confronting the object

Front 42

Origins of specific Phobias

Back 42

Origins
Some fears are biologically based
Genetic predisposition to reactivity/sensitivity
Learning (personal, observation)

Front 43

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
(Obsessions & Compulsions)

Back 43

Obsessions – recurrent, intrusive, anxiety-producing thoughts, images, or urges that cannot be eliminated. Obsessions are in your head, they happen over and over, interfere with other thoughts, can’t eliminated them-reason your way out.

Compulsions – repetitive behaviors or mental acts that one is driven to perform, typically in response to obsession, and according to rigid rules

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Mood Disorders

Back 44

Extreme and prolonged disturbances in mood and emotionality
1.Major Depressive Disorder
2.Bipolar Disorder

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Manic Episode

Back 45

Abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood, lasting at least 1 week, causing impairment

Front 46

Hypomanic & Mixed Episodes

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Hypomanic Episodes
Less severe version of manic episode
Does not cause clinically significant impairment
Lasts at least 4 days

Mixed Episodes
Simultaneously meet criteria for Manic and Major Depressive Episode
Nearly every day for at least 1 week

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Dysthymic Disorder

Back 47

Fewer, milder symptoms than MDD
Minimum of 2 symptoms: Change in appetite, sleep changes, low energy/fatigue, low self-esteem, poor concentration, feelings of hopelessness
Longer lasting episodes (at least 2 yrs)
No manic, hypomanic, or mixed episodes

Front 48

Major Depressive Disorder

Back 48

No manic, hypomanic, or mixed episodes
Risk begins at early teens and steadily increases
Risk becoming greater
Periods of remission tend to decrease over time if recurrent

Front 49

Bipolar Disorders (2 types)

Back 49

Chronic, alternate indefinitely
Type I
At least one major depressive and one manic or mixed episode
Average age of onset: 18 yrs

Type II
At least one major depressive and hypomanic episode
No manic or mixed episode
Average age of onset: 19 to 22 yrs

Front 50

Biological Causes of Mood Disorders

Back 50

-Heredity/Genetics
First degree relatives= higher likelihood
*Especially strong for BPD

-Biochemical Imbalance/Regulation
-Serotonin deficiency
-Cortisol: High amounts=depression

Front 51

Biological Causes of Mood Disorders
-Biochemical Imbalance/Regulation

Back 51

Norepinepherine: low =depression
Dopamine: low= depression, high = mania

Front 52

Biological Causes of Mood Disorder

Back 52

Anatomical differences in amygdala, prefrontal cortex, and hippocampus

Depression: underactive prefrontal cortex, overactive amygdala, neuron death (fewer neurons), shrinking hippocampus

Increased metabolic activity (energy consumption during mania

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Neurotransmitters implicate in anxiety disorders

Back 53

GABA deficiencies.

Front 54

Psychosocial components of Depression

Back 54

Mood disturbance = genetic predisposition + stressor + personality + cognition + behavior

Psychodynamic: internalized anger at someone else manifests as self-criticism and guilt

Behavioral:
Lack of sufficient positive reinforcement
Learned helplessness – exposed to aversive situation that cannot control/avoid =hopelessness

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Cognitive Components of Depression

Back 55

Cognitive sets - negative pattern of viewing the world
Negative views of self (e.g., inadequate, deficient)
Negative interpretations of ongoing experiences
Belief in future difficulties/suffering

Explanatory Style
Belief that have no control over events
Attribute failures to internal, stable, global causes (e.g., stupidity)

Rumination=lengthy conemplation of things

Attentional bias – continue to perceive the world consistent with mood

Front 56

Dissociation

Back 56

feeling detached/disconnected from one’s experience of his/her self or surroundings

Front 57

Dissociative Disorders

Back 57

disorders characterized by sudden loss of memory or identity
Often the result of trauma
Escape conflicts/trauma by separating from the experience

Front 58

Dissociative Amnesia

Back 58

inability to recall important personal information due to psychological stress

Front 59

Dissociative Fugue

Back 59

amnesia + flight
Assumption of new identity

Front 60

Dissociative Identity Disorder

Back 60

Presence of 2 or more simultaneously coexisting identities

Each identity is distinct
Unique memories, behaviors, relationships
Typically shift when under stress

Women > Men
High rates of sexual abuse

Front 61

Schizophrenia
define psychosis

Back 61

Psychotic disorder characterized by highly disturbed thought processes, perceptions, speech, emotions, and behaviors
Psychosis – break with reality

Positive, negative, and disorganized symptoms


Later onset and better prognosis less severe consequences for women

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Positive symptoms of Schizophrenia

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exaggeration or distortion of the normal

Hallucinations – sensory experiences in the absence of real stimuli (auditory, visual, olfactory, gustatory)

Delusions – false beliefs that are not culturally appropriate

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Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia

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Behavioral deficits – decrease in normal functions
Avolition
Alogia
Flat affect

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Avolition
Alogia
Anhedonia
Flat affect

Back 64

Avolition – inability to initiate and persist in activities
Alogia – relative absence of speech
Due to disordered thought processes
Anhedonia – lack of pleasure or indifference to typically pleasurable activities
Flat affect – apparently emotionless demeanor
Lack of inflection in speech, immobile facial expressions, lack of obvious emotional reaction

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Disorganized Symptoms of Schizophrenia

Back 65

Disorganized/incoherent speech
Jumping from topic to topic, or sentences don’t make sense

Disorganized/inappropriate behavior or affect
Inappropriate emotional/affective responses
Disordered movement (e.g., unusual mannerisms, facial expressions, movements)
Strange behaviors

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5 Types of Schizophrenia

Back 66

1. Paranoid
2. Disorganized:Bizarre and disorganized behaviors
3. Catatonic:frozen, rigid, odd, or excessive/agitated
4, Undifferentiated:Don’t fit neatly into preceding three categories
5. Residual:Have at least one schizophrenic episode but no longer exhibit symptoms

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Neurotransmitter of Schizophrenia

Back 67

Excessive stimulation of dopamine receptors

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Diathesis-Stress Model

Back 68

predisposition + environmental stress
The fancy way of saying that in order for a disorder to arise you must have
1. Biological predisposition
2. Environmental trigger to ignite it.

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Personality Disorders (3 cateogories)

Back 69

Chronic, inflexible, maladaptive cognitive-behavioral patterns that impair one’s ability to function or causes distress
1.Odd/eccentric
2.Dramatic/emotionally problematic
3.Chronic-fearfulness/avoidant

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Paranoid personality disorder

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-Pervasive unfounded distrust and suspicion
-Perceived attacks/hidden meanings

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Schizoid personality disorder

Back 71

-Detachment from social relationships
-Limited emotions in interpersonal situations
-Viewed as cold removed from relationships

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Schizotypal personality disorder

Back 72

-Psychotic-like symptoms like schizophrenia but not quite there
-Odd beliefs and thought patterns
-Suspicion
-Hostility

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Antisocial
PD

Back 73

-Disregard for and violation of the rights of others, intrusive, exploitive,
-Disregard for social norms
-Self-indulgent, irresponsible, aggressive

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Borderline
PD

Back 74

-Emotionally unstable, impulsive, unpredictable
-Irritable, anxious
-Unstable self-image

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Narcissistic
PD

Back 75

-Unrealistic sense of self-importance,
-Manipulative,
-Unable to take criticism
-Lack empathy

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Histrionic
PD

Back 76

Attention seeking
Emotionally over-reactive

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Avoidant
PD

Back 77

-Low self-esteem
-Extremely sensitive to opinions of others/rejection
-Avoid social interaction

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Dependent
PD

Back 78

-Lack of self-confidence
-Cling to stronger personalities (decision making)
-Unreasonable fear of abandonment

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Obsessive-Compulsive
PD

Back 79

-Obsessive perfectionism
-Rigidity, rules, black and white thinking
-Preoccupation with details can prevent completion of tasks

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Health Psychology

Back 80

focuses on the role of psychology in establishing and maintaining health, and preventing and treating illness

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Behavioral Medicine

Back 81

interdisciplinary field that focuses on developing and integrating behavioral and biomedical knowledge to promote health and reduce illness.

Front 82

Stress
Acute vs. Chronic

Back 82

the response of individuals to circumstances and events that threaten individuals and tax their coping abilities (i.e., stressors)

Acute Stress – momentary stress that occurs in response to life experiences

Chronic Stress – stress that persists continuously

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Three Phase Response Cycle

Back 83

Alarm Phase - Immediate sympathetic response, Body mobilizes to meet threat
Resistance Phase - Still trying to fight off danger, Body becoming vulnerable due to extended sympathetic response
Exhaustion Phase - Persistent stress exhausts the individual, Very vulnerable to illness

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Optimism vs. Pessimism

Back 84

Optimists  better health, better immune system
Pessimists  create stress and bad moods, tend towards self-destructive activities, substance use, other risky behaviors

Front 85

Locus of Control

Back 85

general expectation of whether you can control the things that happen to you
Internal  better able to handle stressors because feel they can predict/control them, better immune system, more likely to take steps to improve health
Externals  feel that they cannot predict/control outcomes, trouble coping with stressors

Front 86

Hostility

Back 86

Proneness to anger and hostility (stressor)  risk for heart disease

Front 87

Emotional Inhibition in relation to liklihood of ilness

Back 87

Suppressors – tend to deny feelings of anxiety, anger, or fear

Prolonged inhibition of emotions requires a lot of energy

Inability to share traumatic events

Trying to forget/block actually brings thought to the forefront  become more attached to emotion you are trying to block out, more stress

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Coping Strategies

Back 88

-Reduce physiological arousal/tension (e.g., meditation, relaxation training)

Use cognitive abilities to cope with a situation (may not be able to solve problem)
-Looking outward

Front 89

Types of Therapies

Back 89

Biological and Psychotherapy

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Biological Therapies

Back 90

Drug Therapy
Surgery
ECT

Front 91

Psychotherapy

Back 91

Psychodynamic therapy
Behavior therapy
Cognitive therapy
Family therapy
Group therapy

Front 92

Problems with Drug Treatments

Back 92

Placebo effect
High relapse & dropout rate
Dosage problems
Long-term risks
Overprescription
Don’t deal with non-biological roots of problems

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Psychosurgery

Back 93

Surgical procedures performed on brain tissue to alleviate psychological disorders

Front 94

Prefrontal Lobotomy
Lesioning

Back 94

Prefrontal Lobotomy – sever fibers that connect the frontal lobe (higher thought) with hypothalamus/thalamus (emotion)
Reduces impulsivity, anger, guilt, intense/sever emotionality
Intellectual & emotional flatness, inability to plan, childlike actions destroyed who the person was. OLD SCHOOL!

Lesioning – very precise severing typically in limbic system what we do now. Very specific areas of the brain

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ECT

Back 95

Muscle relaxants + anesthesia + electric current (75 to 100 volts)
Last resort – don’t respond to other treatments

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Psychodynamic Therapy

Back 96

Emphasis on the unconscious mind, and the role of early childhood experiences

Psychoanalysis (Freud) – extensive questioning, probing, analyzing – bring unconscious conflicts to the surface

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examples of Psychodynamic therapy

Back 97

Free association – spontaneous flow of thought
Resistance – topics does not want to discuss
Dream analysis
Transference – feelings toward the therapist reflect underlying conflicts

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Behavior Therapies

Back 98

Focus on modifying observable behaviors
Principles of learning (operant/classical conditioning)

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Types of Behavior Therapies

Back 99

Exposure therapies – confront object or situation that causes anxiety
Counterconditioning (e.g., systematic desensitization, flooding, aversion therapy)

Contingency Management – changing behavior by modifying behaviors
Positive reinforcement, shaping, extinction strategies

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Social-Learning Therapies

Back 100

Imitation of models - acquire behaviors by observing appropriate behaviors & seeing rewards (mimic)

Social Skills Training – teach appropriate social skills
Learn what, how, and when to do behave
Behavioral rehearsal (visualization)

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Cognitive Therapies

Back 101

Identify and change thought processes and/or patterns that contribute to behaviors (cognitive restructuring)

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Types of cognitive therapies

Back 102

Rational-Emotive Therapy – changing irrational beliefs (should, ought, must) that cause undesirable, highly charged, emotional reactions (e.g., anxiety) through rational examination
Cognitive-Behavior Therapy
Change false beliefs and self-defeating thoughts
Change behaviors - reinforcement
Self-efficacy – belief that can master situation and produce positive outcomes

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Humanistic Therapies

Back 103

Emphasize self-healing abilities and personal growth

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types of hymanistic therapies

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Client-Centered Therapy
Unconditional positive regard, empathy, authenticity  improve self-concept
Encourage self reflection through active listening & reflective speech, non-directive

Gestalt Therapy – challenge/confront client to take control of life
Express pent up feelings and address previous conflicts carried into new relationships

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Group Therapy

Back 105

Treat individuals who share a psychological problem in a group setting
Individual therapies remove client from normal social relationships
Dealing within social context may improve effectiveness

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Family Therapies

Back 106

Family members affect each other
Behaviors are developed and maintained in the family social setting
Changing behaviors requires changing dynamic of whole family
Identify problematic social influences, relationships – replace “dysfunctional” structures with more effective structures

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What factors contribute to the effectiveness of treatments?

Back 107

1. good relationship with counselor
2. cooperation with patient-they have to want to get better
3. bodily chemistry with the drug treatment