Psychology Exam #2

Front 1

Acquisition

Back 1

A neutral and unconditioned stimulus are paired. The neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response.

Front 2

Stimulus Generalization

Back 2

A conditioned response is elicited not only by the conditioned stimulus but also by stimuli similar tot he conditioned stimulus.

Front 3

Stimulus Discrimination

Back 3

Generalization is limited so that some stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus do not elicit the conditioned response.

Front 4

Extinction

Back 4

The weakening and disappearance of a behavior because of the absence of a stimulus.

Front 5

The four major features of Classical Conditioning:

Back 5

1. Aquisition
2. Stimulus Generalization
3. Stimulus Generalization
4. Extinction

Front 6

The five major features of Operant Conditioning:

Back 6

1. Law of effect
2. Reinforcement
3. Punishment
4. Escape Conditioning
5. Avoidance Conditioning

Front 7

Law of Effect

Back 7

A response followed by a satisfying consequence will be repeated in the future.

Front 8

Reinforcement

Back 8

The frequency of a response s reinforced by a reward. The response is always strengthened.

Front 9

Positive Reinforcement

Negative Reinforcement

Back 9

Presentation of a stimulus

Removal of a stimulus

Front 10

Primary Reinforcement

Secondary Reinforcement

Back 10

Events or stimuli that are inherently rewarding

A previous neutral stimulus that, if paired with a stimulus that is already reinforcing will itself take on reinforcing properties.

Front 11

Punishment

Back 11

The frequency of a response is reinforced by a punishment. The response is always weakened with his action.

Front 12

Escape Conditioning

Back 12

Occurs as a person or animal learns to make a response in order to stop an adverse stimulus.

Front 13

Avoidance COnditioing

Back 13

When an animal or person responds to a signal in a way that avoids an impending aversive stimulus.

Front 14

Social Cognitive Theory

Back 14

The idea that we learn by watching others, this is also called vicarious conditioning.

Front 15

Bobo Doll Experiment

Back 15

Albert Bandura 1965 found that after observing an aggressive model, many children imitate the model's acts precisely, especially if the models aggression was rewarded.

Front 16

Information Processing Stages

Back 16

1. Encode
2. Store
3. Retrieve

Front 17

Encode

Back 17

How info gets into our minds
(Typing in a computer)

Front 18

Store

Back 18

Retention of Information
(Computer storage on a hardrive)

Front 19

Retrieve

Back 19

Access stored information
(Access files on a computer)

Front 20

Memory:

Stages of the Three Stage Model

Back 20

External Stimuli
1. Sensory Memory
2. Short Term Memory
3. Long Term Memory

Front 21

Sensory Memory

Back 21

Briefly retains information picked up by sensory organs

Front 22

Short Term Memory

Back 22

Temporarily holds information in Consciousness.

Front 23

Long Term Memory

Back 23

Can retrieve information for long periods of time after until a person dies.

Front 24

3 ways of Forgetting

Back 24

1. Encoding Failure
2. Interference
3. Competition Among Retrieval Cues

Front 25

Encoding Failure

Back 25

Information is stored in the short-term memory but does not make it to the long-term memory therefore preventing the individual from being able to recall it.

Front 26

Proactive Interference

Back 26

Old Memories are replaced by new memories
(you remember your old phone number in place of your new one)

Front 27

Retroactive Interference

Back 27

New Memories are replaced by old memories
(you remember your new phone number in place of your old one)

Front 28

Retrieval Cues

Back 28

Stimuli that allow people to recall or recognize information stored in memory.

Front 29

Covered Memory Controversy

Back 29

Clancy et al. (2002)

hypotheses:
(1)recovery memory group will have a higher recall and recognition of nonexistant words.
(2) Recovery and Repressed Memory group will have higher recall vs. control.

Both hypotheses were correct.

Front 30

Stress

Back 30

Stressful Events, people's reactions to those events and interactions between people and the situations they face are all important components of stress.

Front 31

Stress as a process

Back 31

1. Stressors
2. Stress Mediators
3. Stress Responses

Front 32

Stressors

Back 32

Life changes and strains. Catastrophic events. Daily hassles. Chronic Stressors.

Front 33

Stress Mediators

Back 33

Cognitive appraisal. Predictability. Control. Coping Resources and Methods. Social Support.

Front 34

Stress Responses

Back 34

Physical. Psychological (Emotional, Cognitive, Behavioral)

Front 35

Stressor Characteristics

Back 35

Controllability. Timing/Duration. Intenstiy/Severity. Predictability. Chronicity (Acute[fight or flight] vs. Chronic Stressor [G.A.S])

Front 36

Cognitive Appraisals

Back 36

Often unconscious and are physiological responses to stress. Distractions and mistaken appraisals cause unnecessary stress.

This Causes:
Sympathetic Arousal
Stress Hormone Release

Which triggers:
Muscle tension. Elevated Heart Rate. Shortness of Breath

Front 37

Primary Appraisal

Back 37

Interpreting situations as threatening or non-threatening

Front 38

Secondary Appraisal

Back 38

Coping Resources

Front 39

General Adaption System [G.A.S]

Back 39

We go through these stages regardless of what the stressor is:
1. Alarm Reaction
2. Resistance
3. Exhaustion

Front 40

[G.A.S]

Alarm Reaction

Back 40

first stage of [G.A.S]
shift to sympathetic dominance causing increased arousal

Front 41

[G.A.S]

Resistance

Back 41

The second stage in [G.A.S]
The endocrine system releases stress hormones to maintain increased arousal.
This eventually causes damage to the immune system because stress hormones prevent immune system form functioning properly)

Front 42

Types of stress hormones

Back 42

Epinephrine, Nonepinephrine, Cortisol, ACTH.

Front 43

[G.A.S]

Exhaustion

Back 43

Final stage of [G.A.S]

The adrenal glads lose their ability to function normally

Front 44

Four Broad Classes of Coping Strategies

Back 44

1. Emotional
2. Behavioral
3. Physical
4. Cognitive

Front 45

Emotional Coping Strategies

Back 45

The Perception that you have support, and that you are cared for and valued by others.
(Getting Adivce)

Front 46

Behavioral Coping Strategies

Back 46

Changing behavior in ways that minimize the impact of stressors.
(making life changes to eliminate stressors)

Front 47

Physical Coping Strategies

Back 47

Strategies aimes at directly altering physical responses before, during and after stressors occur.
(Exercise meditation)

Front 48

Cognitive Coping Strategies

Back 48

Thinking of stressor as challenges rather than as threats.
(avoiding perfectionism)

Front 49

Piaget's Periods of Cognitive Development

Back 49

1. Sensory Motor Stage
2. Preoperational Stage
3. Concrete Operational
4. Formal Operational Stage

Front 50

Piaget

Sensory Motor Stage

Back 50

Birth - 2yrs.
Child is understanding world through senses.
No Object permenance (the existence of an object even when unseen)

Front 51

Piaget

Preoperational Stage

Back 51

2 - 7 yrs.
Conservation - Child cannot manipulate and transform information in logical ways

Child is egocentric and has difficulty seeing the world from other points of view.

Front 52

Piaget

Concrete Operational Stage

Back 52

7 - 11yrs.

Better understanding of conservation

Less egocentric

Child has a hard time using hypothetical or abstract thought.

Front 53

Piaget

Formal Operational Stage

Back 53

over 11yrs.

Hypothetical and abstract thinking achieved

Front 54

Stages of Erikson's Psychosocial Theory in Childhood

Back 54

1. Basic Trust vs. Mistrust
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Front 55

Erikson

Basic Trust vs. Mistrust

Back 55

1st year

Infants learn to trust that their needs will be met by the world, especially by the mother - or they learn to mistrust the world

Front 56

Erikson

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Back 56

2nd year

Children learn to exercise will, to make choices, and to control themselves - or they become uncertain and doubt that they can do things by themselves.

Front 57

Erikson

Initiative vs. Guilt

Back 57

3rd - 5th year

Children learn to initiate activities and enjoy their accomplishments, acquiring direction and purpose. Or, if they are not allowed initiative, they feel guilty for their attempts at independence.

Front 58

Erikson

Industry vs. Inferiority

Back 58

6th year - puberty

Child develops a sense of industry and curiosity and is eager to learn - or they feel inferior and lose interest in the tasks before them.

Front 59

Cognitive Changes in Adulthood

Back 59

perceptual speed (reaction time)

Memory for new factual information.

Intellectual Changes

Front 60

Stages of Adulthood

Back 60

Early Adulthood
Middle Adulthood
Late Adulthood

Front 61

Early Adulthood

Back 61

Increases continue in knowledge, problem solving ability, and moral reasoning.

Front 62

Middle Adulthood

Back 62

Thought becomes more complex, adaptive, and global.

Front 63

Late Adulthood

Back 63

Reasoning, Mathematical Ability, Comprehension, Novel Problem solving and memory may decline.

Front 64

How to prevent negative changes in Late Adulthood

Back 64

Keep mind active.
Exercise.
Above Average Education.
Living in a community/ Social Contact.
Spirituality.
Engaging in stimulating jobs & exercises.

Front 65

Describe the importance of the Nun Studies.

Back 65

The Nun Studies showed that:
Keep mind active.
Exercise.
Above Average Education.
Living in a community/ Social Contact.
Spirituality.
Engaging in stimulating jobs & exercises.

all helped to reduce the effects of aging on the mind.

Front 66

Reliability

Back 66

Based on test- retest reliability. After the age of 7 IQ tests scores are reliable throughout life.

Front 67

Validity

Back 67

Based on construct Validity, which is when a test actually measures what it is designed to measure.

Front 68

Psychometric Approach

Back 68

(I.Q Scores)

Most popular approach to understanding intelligence.

Charles Sperman (1923)
General/ Special abilities

Matters in job we get
Plays a large role in general intelligence

Front 69

Multiple Intelligence Approach

Back 69

(Specific Mental Abilities)

Understanding Intelligence by Examining test Scores., Information Processing, Biological and developmental research, the skills valued by different cultures, and exceptional people.

8 intelligences provided by biology:
Linguistic. Logical-Mathematical. Spatial. Musical. Body-Kinesthetic. Intrapersonal. & Naturalistic

Front 70

Major Criticisms of IQ scores amoung particular groups of people.

Back 70

1. Some critics argue that a disproportionately large number of people in some ethnic minority groups score low on IQ tests for reasons that are unrelated to cognitive ability,job potential, or other criteria that the tests are supposed to predict. They say that using IQ tests to make decisions about people may unfairly deprive members of some ethnic minority groups of equal employment or educational opportunities.
2. Noncognitive factors such as trust, motivation, and anxiety influence performance on IQ tests and may put certain groups at a disadvantage.
3. Many items are still drawn from the vocabulary and experiences of the dominant middle-class culture of the United States. As a result, these tests measure the achievement in acquiring knowledge valued by that culture. Not all cultures value the same things.
4. Most tests have either a right or wrong answer when there can be many levels of interpretation for the "correct" answer to a question depending on culture. All of which could be considered intelligent.