Psychology Exam 2

Front 1

Examines how people are continually developing--physically, cognitively, and socially--from infancy through old age.

Back 1

developmental psychology

Front 2

the fertilized egg; it enters a two week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.

Back 2

zygote

Front 3

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.

Back 3

embryo

Front 4

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

Back 4

fetus

Front 5

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

Back 5

teratogens

Front 6

What are the stages of prenatal development (in order)?

Back 6

1. zygote
2. embryo
3. fetus

Front 7

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions.

Back 7

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

Front 8

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Back 8

habituation

Front 9

Newborns vigorously root for a nipple when ___.

Back 9

their cheek is touched.

Front 10

Any drug taken by a mother passes through the ___ and enters the child's ___.

Back 10

placenta; bloodstream

Front 11

Infants, like adults, focus on the __ first rather than the body.

Back 11

face

Front 12

We are born preferring sights and sounds that facilitate ___ ____.

Back 12

social responsiveness

Front 13

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

Back 13

maturation

Front 14

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Back 14

cognition

Front 15

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

Back 15

schema

Front 16

interpreting our new experience in terms of our existing schemas

Back 16

assimilation

Front 17

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.

Back 17

accommodation

Front 18

In Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.

Back 18

sensorimotor stage

Front 19

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

Back 19

object permanence

Front 20

In Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 years to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

Back 20

preoperational stage

Front 21

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

Back 21

conservation

Front 22

In Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view.

Back 22

egocentrism

Front 23

people's ideas about their own and other's mental states--about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

Back 23

theory of mind

Front 24

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind.

Back 24

autism

Front 25

In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.

Back 25

concrete operational stage

Front 26

In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

Back 26

formal operational stage

Front 27

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.

Back 27

stranger anxiety

Front 28

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.

Back 28

attachment

Front 29

an optimal period shortly after child birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development.

Back 29

critical period

Front 30

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

Back 30

imprinting

Front 31

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

Back 31

basic trust

Front 32

our understanding and evaluation of who we are

Back 32

self-concept

Front 33

A child develops object permanence and stranger anxiety in the ___ stage.

Back 33

sensorimotor

Front 34

A child develops egocentrism in the ___ stage.

Back 34

preoperational

Front 35

A child develops a sense of conservations in the ___ stage.

Back 35

concrete operational

Front 36

A child develops a sense of abstract logic an a potential for mature moral reasoning in the ___ stage.

Back 36

formal operational

Front 37

What are the four stages of cognitive development according to Piaget?

Back 37

1. sensorimotor
2. preoperational
3. concrete operational
4. formal operational

Front 38

Most people's earliest memories do not predate ___ years of age.

Back 38

3

Front 39

Although some infants reach milestones such as walking or rolling over ahead of others, the ___ is the same for all infants.

Back 39

order

Front 40

Studies have shown that children with the highest self-esteem, self-reliance, and social competence usually have ____ parents.

Back 40

authoritative

Front 41

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.

Back 41

adolescence

Front 42

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

Back 42

puberty

Front 43

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) tat make sexual reproduction possible

Back 43

primary sex characteristics

Front 44

non-reproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.

Back 44

secondary sex characteristics

Front 45

the first menstrual period

Back 45

menarche

Front 46

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

Back 46

identity

Front 47

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

Back 47

social identity

Front 48

In Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood.

Back 48

intimacy

Front 49

for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to early twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood.

Back 49

emerging adulthood

Front 50

What are Kohlberg's three stages of morality (in order)?

Back 50

1. Pre-conventional morality
2. Conventional morality
3. Post-conventional morality

Front 51

In ___ morality, the person obeys to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards.

Back 51

pre-conventional

Front 52

Moral reasoning based on a sense of social duty or a desire to gain social approval is associated with the ___ level of moral development.

Back 52

conventional

Front 53

Reasoning based on ethical principles is characteristic of the ___ level of moral development.

Back 53

post-conventional

Front 54

Adolescence is typically a time of growing ___ influence and diminishing ___ influence.

Back 54

peer;parent

Front 55

High school girls who have the most affectionate relationships with their mothers tend to ____(love/hate) the most intimate friendships with peers.

Back 55

love

Front 56

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

Back 56

associative learning

Front 57

a type of learning in which one learns to like two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Back 57

classical conditioning

Front 58

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience.

Back 58

learning

Front 59

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Back 59

behaviorism

Front 60

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

Back 60

unconditioned response (UR)

Front 61

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally--naturally and automatically--triggers a response.

Back 61

unconditioned stimulus (US)

Front 62

In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

Back 62

conditioned response (CR)

Front 63

In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Back 63

conditioned stimulus (CS)

Front 64

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Back 64

acquisition

Front 65

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.

Back 65

higher-order conditioning

Front 66

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an US does not follow a CS; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Back 66

extinction

Front 67

the reappearance, after a pause, or an extinguished conditioned response.

Back 67

spontaneous recovery

Front 68

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Back 68

generalization

Front 69

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Back 69

discrimination

Front 70

For the most rapid conditioning, a CS should be presented ___ second(s) before/after the US.

Back 70

one-half second before the US

Front 71

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Back 71

respondent behavior

Front 72

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Back 72

operant conditioning

Front 73

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

Back 73

operant behavior

Front 74

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Back 74

law of effect

Front 75

In operant conditioning research, a chamber (aka Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking

Back 75

operant chamber

Front 76

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Back 76

shaping

Front 77

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Back 77

reinforcer

Front 78

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food.

Back 78

positive reinforcement

Front 79

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. NOT a punishment.

Back 79

negative reinforcement

Front 80

An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as the one that satisfies a biological need.

Back 80

primary reinforcer

Front 81

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; aka a secondary reinforcer

Back 81

conditioned reinforcer

Front 82

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Back 82

continuous reinforcement

Front 83

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Back 83

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

Front 84

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Back 84

fixed-ratio schedule

Front 85

in operant condition, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Back 85

variable-ration schedule

Front 86

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Back 86

fixed-interval schedule

Front 87

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Back 87

variable-interval schedule

Front 88

an event that diminishes the behavior that it follows

Back 88

punishment

Front 89

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a ____ ____ of it.

Back 89

cognitive map

Front 90

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Back 90

latent learning

Front 91

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

Back 91

intrinsic motivation

Front 92

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

Back 92

extrinsic motivation