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85 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Motivation
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involves goal-directed behavior
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Motives
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are needs, wants, and desires leading to goal directed behavior
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Drive theories
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seeking homeostasis; developed by Clark Hall
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Homeostasis
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a state of physiological equilibrium or stability; ex) body temp
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Drive
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an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activites that should reduce this tension
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Drive theories cannot explain all motivation...
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Ex) a "thirst for knowledge", or why we eat dessert after a full meal
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Homeostasis
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the bodily process of maintaining a balanced internal state; operates in many basic drives
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Incentive
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is an external goal that has the capacity to motivate behavior
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Push versus pull theories
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drive theories emphasize how internal states of tension push people in certain directions; incentive theories emphasize how external stimuli pull people in certain directions
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Evolutionary psychologists...
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believe that human motives are the products of natural selection
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Biological motives
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originate in bodily needs (same for everyone)
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Social motives
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originate in social experiences (different for everyone depending on their experiences)
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K.B. Madsen
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identifies biological needs which reflect needs essential for survival
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Henry Murray
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identified social motives; the strength of these motives vary from person to person
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Walter Cannon & A.L. Washburn
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Theorized that stomach contractions cause hunger; there is a correlation, but not a causation
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Hypothalamus
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regulates hunger
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Glucose
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a simple sugar that is an important source of energy; increase in glucose level make people feel satisfied, decrease in glucose level causes hunger
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Glucostatic theory
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proposes that fluctuations in blood level are monitored in the brian by glucostats
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Glucostats
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neurons sensitive to glucose in the surrounding fluid
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Hormonal regulation
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a variety of hormones circulating in the blood stream appear to contribute to the regulation of hunger
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Insulin
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secreted by pancreas, must be present to extract glucose from the blood; level increase when people eat
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Ghrelin
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causes stomach contractions and promotes hunger
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Leptin
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contributes to the long-term regulation of hunger (also the modulation of numerous other bodily functions); when leptin levels are high the propensity to feel hunger diminishes
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Platability
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the better food tastes, the more people consume
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Quantity available
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people tend to consume what is put in front of them
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Variety
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increase consumption when a greater variety of food is available
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Innate taste preferences
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sweet tastes (presented at birth); high-fat foods, preference for salt (4 months)
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Learned preferences and habits
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people from different cultures display enormous variations in patterns of food consumption
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Observational learning
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preferences are a matter of exposure
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Stress
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link between heightened arousal/negative emotion and overeating
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Negative emotions
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evoked by stress may promote additional eating
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Obesity
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the condition of being overweight
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BMI
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body mass index; weight (kg) divided by height (meters) squared
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Health concern
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vulnerable to cardiovascular disease, hypertension, respiratory problems, stroke
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Poor fitness
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may contribute to health problems
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Evolutionary explanation
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consume more food than necessary since food may not be available later
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Roots of Obesity
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people inherit a genetic vulnerability to obesity
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William Masters & Virginia Johnson
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used physiological recording devices to monitor bodily changes in volunteers engaging in sexual activities
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4 stages: Excitement phase
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physical arousal escalates; vasocognition-engorgement of blood vessels
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4 stages: Plateau phase
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arousal builds at slower pace
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4 stages: Orgasm phase
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sexual arousal reaches peak intensity; heart rate, respiration, blood pressure increase; ejaculation in males
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4 stages: Resolution phase
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arousal subsides; men experience a refractory period-time in which males are largely unresponsive to further stimulation
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Robert Trivers parental investment theory
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referes to what each sex has to invest-in terms of time, energy, survival risk, and forgone opportunities-to produce and nurture offspring
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Males
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generally show greater interest in sex than women-think more about sex; initiate sex more often; pursue sex with a greater variety of partners; seek more partners; more likely to agree to have sex with someone they had know only for a brief period
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David Buss
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50 scientists around the world; 10,000 people, 37 cultures tests parental investment theory.
Findings: women in all cultures place higher value on status, ambition, and finances; men more interested in youthfulness and physical attractiveness |
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Research on aggressive pornography
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-Typically depicts violence against women
-May increase males' aggressive behavior toward women -May make sexual coercion seem less offensive and help perpetuate the myth that women enjoy being raped |
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Sexual orientation
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refers to person's preference for emotional and sexual relationships with the individuals of the same sex, the other sex, or either sex
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Alfred Kinsey
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concluded that it is accurate to view heterosexuality and homosexuality as end points on a continuum
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Robert Epstein
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collected data from over 18,000; results are consistent with the notion that sexual orientation should be viewed as a continuum
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Michaels
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suggests 5% to 8% of population could be characterized as homosexuals
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Environmental theories
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explaining the origins of homosexuality have little empirical support
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Freudian theorists
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argue that a male is likely to become gay when raised by a weak, detached, ineffectual father who is a poor role model and by an overprotective mother who he boy identifies with
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Behavioral theorists
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argue that homosexuality is a learned preference acquired when same-sex stimuli have been paired with sexual arousal, perhaps through seduction by an adult
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Homosexuality research
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-extremely feminin behavior in young boys does predict subsequent development of homosexuality
-most gay people report they can trace their homosexual learnings back to their early childhood -many gays initially struggled to deny their sexual orientation -roots of homosexuality are more biological than environmental |
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Bailey & Pillard
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for gay men: 52% of identical twins, 22% of fraternal twins and 11% of adoptive brothers were gay
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Bailey
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study of lesbians yield similar patterns
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Achievement
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is the need to master difficult challenges to outperform others, and to meet high standards of excellence
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David McClelland
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argued that achievement motivation is of the utmost importance-the sparks which ignite economic growths, scientific progress, inspirational leadership, and masterpieces in the creative arts
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Thematic Apperception Test
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a projective test that requires subjects to respond to vague, ambiguous stimuli in ways that reveal personal motives and traits; measures need for achievement
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John Atkinson
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expands McClelland's theory; identified important situational determinants of achievement behavior: strength of one's motivation to achieve success; the pursuit of achievement increases as the probability of success increases and the incentive value of success increases
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Emotion
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is a highly personal, subjective experience; some degree of emotional control is possible, but emotions tend to involve automatic reactions that are difficult to regulate
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Evaluative aspect
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people characterize their emotions as pleasant or unpleasant, including "mixed emotions" containing both which occur simultaneously rather than altering back and forth
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Autonomic nervous system
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regulates the activity of glands, smooth muscles, blood vessels; most of the physiological arousal associated with emotion occurs through the actions of this
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Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)
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an increase in the electrical conductivity of the skin which occurs when sweat glands increase their activity
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Polygraph (lie detector)
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a device that records autonomic fluctuations while a subject is questioned
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Amygdala
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plays a central role in the acquisition and memory of conditioned fears
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Joseph LeDoux
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the amygdala lies at the core of a complex set of neural circuits that process emotion; believes there are both a fast pathway and slower pathway to process emotion
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Body language
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used to express emotions; smiles, frowns, furrowed brows, clenched fists, slumped shoulders
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Paul Ekman
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people can generally successfully identify six fundamental emotions quickly and automatically-happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust
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Izard and Tomkins facial feedback hypothesis
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asserts that facial muscles send signals to the brain and that these signals help the brain and that these signals help the brain recognize the emotion one is experiencing
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Ekman & Friesen
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tesed their emotional facial cues in many countries and found considerable cross-cultural agreement in the identification of basic emotions
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Cross-Cultural similarities
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-Even people in preliterate cultures identified basic emotions, indicating this is a result of biology rather than learning
-cross cultural similarities also found in the cognitive and physiological elements of emotional experience |
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Cross-Cultural differences
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disparities in how people perceive, think about, and express emotions; ex) how emotions are categorized, nonverbal expression of emotions
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Display rules
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norms that regulate the appropriate expressions; when, how, and to whom people can show emotions to
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James-Lange Theory
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proposed that the conscious experience of emotion results from one's perception of autonomic arousal
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Autonomic specificity
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different emotions are accompanied by somewhat different patterns of autonomic activation
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Cannon-Bard Theory
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points out that physical arousal may occur without the experience of emotion and visceral changes are too slow to precede the conscious experience of emotion
argues that emotion occurs when the thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex and the autonomic nervous system |
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Schachtler's Two-Factor Theory
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asserted that people look at situational cues to differentiate between alternative emotions; experience of emotions depends on two factors: the autonomic arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal
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Charles Darwin
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believed that emotions developed because of their adaptive value; viewed emotions as a product of evolution
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Subjective well-being
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an indivduals' personal perceptions of their overall happiness and life satisfaction
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Factors that DO NOT predict happiness
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money, age, parenthood, intelligence, physical attractiveness
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Moderately good predictors of happiness
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health, social activity, religion
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Strong predictors of happiness
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love and marriage, work, personality
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Affective forecasting
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efforts to predict one's emotional reactions to future; we assume we know what is best for us, but research shows otherwise
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Hedonic adaptation
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occurs when the mental scale that people use to judge the pleasantness unpleasant of their experiences shifts so that their neutral point of baseline for comparison changes
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