Psychology Chapters 10, 11, 13

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developmental psychology

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studies the changes in physical and psychological functioning that occurs from conception across the entire lifespan; establishes the normal distribution of characteristics for age groups

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normative investigations

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research effort designed to describe what is characteristic of a specific age or developmental age

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developmental age

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age at which most children show a particular level of physical or mental development

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1. cross-sectional designs - various individuals of different ages tested once

2. longitudinal designs - same individuals tested numerous times across their lifespans

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Research Designs in Developmental Psychology

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1. Prenatal (Conception-Birth)

2. Infancy (0-18 mo)

3. Childhood (18 mo-11 years)

4. Adolescence (11-20 years)

5. Adulthood (20+ years)

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Stages of Physical Development

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cognitive development

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development of the processes involved in knowing, thinking, and reasoning

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Jean Piaget

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came up with a comprehensive theory of how children’s understanding of the world changes as they mature

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schemes

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actions or mental representations that organize knowledge

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assimilation

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using existing schemes to deal with new information

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accomadation

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adjusting schemes to fit new information

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1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2)

2. Pre-operational Stage (2-7)

3. Concentration Operational Stage (7-11)

4. Formal Operational Stage (11+)

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Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

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1. Germinal

2. Embryonic

3. Fetal

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Periods of the Prenatal Stage

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germinal period

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sperm fertilized the egg (zygote),

moves down the fallopian tube; cell division creates blastocyst (inner cells) and trophoblast (nutrition); 80% of blastocyst attach to the uterine wall

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embryonic period

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(2-8 weeks) blastocyst forms amnion, embryo, and placenta; sensitive period for facial features, hands, feet, and senses; movement felt at 16 weeks; rapid brain growth; independent viability at 27 weeks

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1. Reflexes - rooting, sucking, grasping, moro, driving

2. Visual System - head turn

3. Auditory System - prefer mother’s voice

4. Motor - cephalocaudal rule (head down development)

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Neonate Reflexes

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Infancy vision

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40x worse than adult’s; Goals: to maximize gains look at what they can see well (high contrast); prefer human faces, look at important sources of social information

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Infancy depth perception

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capacity to perceive depth starts at 4 mo; predisposed to learn quickly that height = danger (even without previous experience of falling)

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Childhood maturation

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age-related physical and behavioral changes, characteristics of a species raised in the normal habitat

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puberty

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attainment of sexual maturity; secondary sexual characteristics; production of sperm (spermache) or eggs (menarche)

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adolescent brain development

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second growth period; frontal lobes (planning, decision-making, emotional regulation)

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1. 40+ years - biological functioning declines, vision affected, reduced sperm count

2. 50+ years - menopause

3. 60+ years - hearing loss

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Stages of Adulthood

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Sensorimotor Stage

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Scheme: understanding the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor actions

Related Phenomenon: lack of object permanence

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object permanence

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the recognition that an object stills exists even when it is not seen

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Pre-operational Stage

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Scheme: understanding the world by representing things with words and images, but without the ability to perform “operations” (reversible mental actions)

Related Phenomenon: Egocentrism, Centration, Lack of conservation

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egocentrism

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can’t take the perspective of another person

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centration

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captured attention by striking features

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conservation

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the understanding that physical properties do not change when nothing is added or taken away, even though appearances may change

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Concentration Operational Stage

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Scheme: understanding the world by reasoning logically about concrete (real or tangible) events

Related Phenomenon: a poor abstract reasoning

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Formal Operational Stage

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Scheme: understand the world by reasoning abstractedly and hypothetically

Related Phenomenon: hypothetical - deductive reasoning

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theory of mind

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the ability to explain and predict other people’s behavior based on an understanding of their mental states

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social development

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the ways in which individuals’ social interactions, expectations, and needs change across the lifespan

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socialization

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the lifelong process whereby an individual ‘s behavioral patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes, and motives are shaped to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society

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temperament

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a child’s biologically based level of emotional and behavioral response to environmental events

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attachment

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(child) a close emotional tie between infants and their primary care givers

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1. Filial Imprinting - instinctive learning of the characteristics of one’s primary care giver

2. Interactional Synchrony - appropriate communication and responding between infants and primary care givers

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Attachment is Formed By:

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1. Promotes survival - provides infants with a sense of safety and access to food

2. Promotes adjustment - provides infants with a sense of security (contact comfort), which facilitates the social experiences essential for healthy development

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Importance of Attachment

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The strange situation test

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a procedure in which infants are separated from and reunited with their primary care givers; assesses attachment pattern (secure, avoidant, or ambient); attachment pattern can influence adult relationships

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parenting style

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the typical way in which parents interact with their children in terms of “demandingness” and “responsiveness”; maintains attachment

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identity formation

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(adolescence) developing a coherent, integrated, sense of self (discovering who one really is); influenced by peers relationships (which allows the exploration of different identities); results in autonomy (independence)

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intimacy and generativity

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(adult) committing to a close interpersonal relationship and contributing towards the greater good, produces a sense of psychological well-being

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imprinting

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a primitive form of learning in which some infant animals physically follow and form an attachment to the first moving object they see or hear

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motivation

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the processes involved in starting, directing, and maintaing physical and psychological activities

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1. links biology and behavior
2. explains behavioral variability
3. assigns responsibility (Was it an accident?)
4. explains perseverance (marathon runners)

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Functions of Motivation

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1. Genetic predisposition

2. Instincts

3. Drives

4. Incentives

5. Cognitions

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Sources of Motivation

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genetic predisposition

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genes pre-dispose animals to engage in species-typical behaviors

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instincts

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programmed tendencies leading to fixed action patterns

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drives

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the desire to obtain physiological rewards (food, water, warmth) prompts many behaviors; drive-reduction theory

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incentives

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the desire to obtain non-physiological rewards (fun, excitement, info gain) prompts many behaviors; Optimal Arousal Theory

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expectancies

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judgements about future events

1. self-efficacy belief (Can I do it?)

2. outcome probability (Will it work?)

3. reinforcement value (How much will I appreciate success?)

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cognitions

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can be prompted by our thoughts, includes expectancies and attributions

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attributions

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judgements about the causes of past events

1. Internal - External (Am I the cause?)

2. Stable - Unstable (Will the cause exist in the future?)

3. Global - Specific (Will the cause influence all areas of my life?)

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explanatory style

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a person’s habitual way of explaining events, affects motivation by creating optimism or pessimism

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hierarchy of needs

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a pyramidal ranking system based on the strength of different motivations (needs)

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Self-Actualization (Weakest Motivation)

Esteem

Belongingness

Safety

Physiological (Strongest Motivation)

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Hierarchy of Needs

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1. Physiological determinants

2. Psychological determinants

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Motivations for Eating Behavior

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physiological determinant

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the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus

regulates homeostatic eating (eating caused by bodily needs)

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psychological determinant

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the lateral hypothalamus (in conjunction with the prefrontal cortex), regulates allostatic eating( eating caused by external influences)

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1. Peripheral responses - stomach contraction, stomach distention, and taste (vagus nerve)

2. Central Responses - blood sugar levels (pancreatic hormone,“insulin”); stored fat levels (fat cell hormone “leptin”)

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Physiological Determinants Influenced by:

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Cultural norms: Standard meal times, available foods, serving sizes, social eating etc.

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Psychological determinants influenced by:

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eating disorder

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persistent disturbances in eating behavior

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1. genetics
2. socio-culture factors
3. gender
4. perfectionism
5. dieting

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Risk Factors for Eating Disorders

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1. Anorexia nervosa

2. Bulimia nervosa

3. Binge-eating disorder

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Eating Disorders

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Anorexia nervosa

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restriction of food intake resulting in being underweight; intense fear of gaining weight; disturbance in the way that shape is experienced (or influences of self-evaluation)

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bulimia nervosa

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recurrent episodes of binge eating (uncontrollable and excessive food consumption); recurrent inappropriate compensatory behavior; over-concern with body shape; normal weight or above

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binge-eating disorder

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recurrent episodes of binge-eating; marked by distress regarding binge-eating; no associated inappropriate compensatory behaviors

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(BMI = weight in kg divided by height m2)

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BMI formula

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sexual arousal

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the motivational state of excitement and tension brought about by reactions to erotic stimuli

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1. Excitement - vascular changes to pelvis
2. Plateau - maximum arousal
3. Orgasm - release of tension
4. Resolution - return to normal

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Stages of Sex (Masters & Johnson)

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1. Physical attractiveness

2. Hormones

3. External stimuli

4. Evolution

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Determinants of Sexual Desire

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Bodies: 1. Male - broad shoulders , narrow waist, and muscular tone (indicated sexual maturity and youth (fertility))

2. Female - developed breasts and narrow waist (indicated sexual maturity and youth (fertility) and not pregnant)

Faces: 1. Clear skin - indicates youth and health

2. Symmetry - indicates good health and good genes

3. Average features - indicates normal development

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Physical Attractiveness

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1. Androgens - development of male sexual features

2. Estrogen - development of female sexual features; female fertility (humans & animals); female receptiveness (animals)

3. Testosterone - male and female sexual desire (humans)

4. Oxytocin - the “bonding” hormone

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Hormones

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1. equal male/female arousal

2. different male/female responses

3. influence on sexual attitudes (conformity)

4. influence on sexual behavior (social learning)

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External stimuli (erotic material)

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Males: low investment, making an investment isn’t costly, little discrimination

Females: high investment, making a mistake is costly, high discrimination

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Evolution (Parental Investment Theory)

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personality

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the characteristic patterns of behavior (thoughts, feelings) that an individual displays over time across situations

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trait

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describes individuals using distinguishing dimensions which summarize their typical patterns of behavior

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Allport

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used the “lexical approach” to identify 4,504 stable positions; classified into 3 categories according to intensity

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1. Cardinal - overriding passions

2. Central - outstanding characteristics

3. Secondary - minor characteristics

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Allport's 3 Categories

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Cattell

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refined the “lexical approach”, removed synonyms to identify 171 stable positions; used “factor analysis” to distill 16 source traits

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Costa and McCrae

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combined source traits in 5 super-factors

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1. Openness (curious-uninquisitive)

2. Conscientiousness (disciplined-negligent)

3. Extraversion (outgoing-reserved)

4. Agreeableness (kind-ruthlessness)

5. Neuroticism (anxious-calm)

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The Big 5

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Eysenck

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offers a biological account for the basis of super-factors

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1. Extraversion - linked to base levels of cortical arousal

2. Neuroticism - linked to sensitivity of the limbic system

3. Psychoticism - linked to dopamine levels (agreeableness)

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The Giant 3

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personality inventory

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individuals indicate whether a series of statements are true or typical of themselves

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psychodynamic assessment

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offers an account of the causes of behavior and the development of personality; Sigmund Freud

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cause of behavior

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characteristic behaviors emerge from conflicts between the “id” (basic drives) and the “superego” (conscience) which are resolved by the “ego” (mediator); resolution strategies: compromise, defense mechanisms

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development of personality

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personality is formed in childhood as individuals attempt to overcome major developmental tasks

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1. Oral (0-1.5) - weaning

2. Anal (1.5-3) - toilet training

3. Phallic (3-6) - controlling sexual impulses

4. Latency (6-12) - acquiring social skills

5. Genital (12+) - forming adult relationships

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Psychosexual Stages

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1. Projective Test

2. Humanistic

3. Behavioral

4. Cognitive

5. Behavioral Cognitive

6. Self

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Psychodynamic Assessment Techniques

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projective test

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individuals respond to ambiguous stimuli and in doing so reveal their unconscious feelings and motives

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humanistic

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characteristic behaviors (personality) arise from using one’s unique abilities to satisfy the hierarchy of needs; people progress through the hierarchy, doing what is best for their own well-being, unless thwarted by the physical or social environment; problematic behaviors arise from a concern for gaining other’s approval; positive regard (acceptance) diminishes the concern for others approval so it is essential for healthy growth

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behavioral

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the learning and performance of characteristic behaviors (personality) is determined by imitation and by rewards and punishments (Observation Learning - Bandura)

(Operant Conditioning - Skinner)

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cognitive

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characteristic behavior determined by the way we think about a situation; we all notice different things about situations, and these personal constructs guide our behaviors (Personal Construct Theory)

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cognitive behavioral

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one’s characteristic pattern of behavior (personality) is determined both by thoughts and rewards and punishments; Social Learning Theory (Bandura); Reciprocal Determinism

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self

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our characteristic pattern or behavior (personality) arise from how we manage our sense of “self”

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1. Self knowledge - beliefs you have about yourself

2. Public self - image you convey to other people

3. Agent self - controlling yourself

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Elements of Self

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fixation

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a state in which a person remains attached to objects or activities more appropriate for an earlier stage of psychosexual development

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psychic determinism

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the assumption that mental and behavioral reactions are determined by previous experiences

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unconcious

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the domain of the psyche that stores repressed urges and primitive impulses

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repression

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the basic defense mechanism by which painful or guilt-producing thoughts, feelings, or memories are excluded from conscious awareness