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48 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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What is psychology? |
The scientific study of the mind (thoughts and feelings that are inferred from observation) and its functions, especially those affecting behaviour (actions that can be observed and measured). |
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What is a law? |
Describes something that happens without exceptions and has been established through repeated testing. It doesnt explain why things happen. Specifies that under certain conditions, certain things will happen, and is often used to describe the mathematical relationship between two or more variables. |
Describes doesn't explain. |
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What is a theory? |
A conceptual framework that explains existing observations, and the laws based upon them. They also predict new ones. A scientific theory is grounded in actual data based upon tested hypotheses. It is more than an educated guess. |
Explains doesnt describe |
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What is a theory evaluated on the basis of? |
The principle of parsimony - Occam's razor Falsifiability Internal consistency |
Three things. |
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What is the similarity between scientific theories and laws? |
Both are based upon observation and experimentations. They can be disproved or modified to accommodate new discoveries. |
What are they based on? |
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What is a hypothesis? |
A working assumption or a specific prediction about some phenomena.
Identifies specific relationships between the variables and specifies the effect the IV will have on the DV
A hypothesis can be disproved but not proven to be true. |
A working.... Or a specific.... Identifies.... Can be disproved but not... |
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What are the differing hypotheses? |
Null hypothesis: states that there is no relationship between the two variables Alternative hypothesis: there is a relationship between the two variables. |
Null and alternate |
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One tailed vs. Two tailed hypotheses |
When making predictions of the outcome of research, an alternative hypothesis can either be: One tailed/directional: states that a relationship exists between the variables and you are specific as to what that relationship is. Needs to be based on previous findings. Two tailed/non-directional: states only that a relationship exists. Expects a difference between the conditions but does not specify the direction of that prediction. |
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What are the steps in the scientific prediction? |
1. Initial observation/question 2. Form hypothesis 3. Test hypothesis 4. Analyse data 5. Further research and theory building 6. New hypothesis derived from theory. |
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What are the different methods of research? |
1. Quasi experiments: Observational studies Interviews/questionnaires Case studies Correlational studies. 2. True experiments |
Quasi/true |
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Quasi experiments: What are observational studies? |
A type of study in which behaviour is observed as it occurs in a natural setting, and certain outcomes are measured. An observation must be as precise as possible, observed in a systematic and objective manner with careful record keeping. E.g. Bandura, Ross and Ross 1961 |
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What are the advantages of observational studies? |
Ecological validity Overcomes ethical concerns Generates new ideas Helps round out research by offering a real world aspect to a hypothesis |
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What are the disadvantages of observational studies? |
Behavioural interpretation/researcher bias: observational studies can include a high degree of these. Subconscious opinions can affect analysis.
Lack of control: more suspectible to confounding variables than TEs
No causal conclusions: due to lack of control |
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Quasi experiments: what are interviews and questionnaires? |
Involves gathering information about people's attitudes, opinions and behaviours - you can't tell all there is to know about a situation just by observing. E.g. the Kinsey reports |
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What are the advantages of interviews and questionnaires? |
Large samples can be obtained as research is quick to conduct Provides a more in depth analysis of behaviour than observation - stufies attitudes and options that are not observable. Standardised format |
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What are the disadvantages of interviews and questionnaires? |
Suspectible to sampling errors
Reliant on self report
Interview bias
No casual relationship can be determined |
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Quasi experiments: What are case studies? |
A detailed description of one individual case (usually a person), using a combination of research techniques (including observations, interviews and questionnaires). The case study itself is not a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate materials suitable for the case study. E.g. Little Hans |
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What are the advantages of case studies? |
In depth method: intensive and large Rare phenomena: case studies are valuable in informung us of conditions that are rare or unusual Case studies allow us to challenge theories and helps us generate new ideas that can be tested by other methods. |
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What are the disadvantages of case studies? |
Lack of generalisability : due to small sample Difficult to replicate as it is unlikely such a situation will ever occur again Researcher bias: subjective view may influence the case study Cannot draw solid conclusions - no manipulation has occurred. |
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Quasi experiments: what are correlational studies? |
Involves measuring the associations between naturally occuring variables Or A method that looks for relationships between variables - but nothing is manipulated The variables are simply observed as is |
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What are the advantages of correlational studies? |
Quantifies relationships between variables Allows for predictions to be made - if we find that two variables have a strong relationship, we can make predictions about this. Ethically sound - nothing is manipulated Identifies real world relationships. |
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What are the disadvantages of correlational studies? |
Correlation is not causation Issues with generalisability |
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What is the issue with quasi experiments? |
Whilst useful and has an important place in research, no causal relationships can be established between the variables. |
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What is a true experiment? |
A true experiment is a type of experimental design and is thought to be the most accurate of experimental research This is because they are well controlled investigations which a hypothesis is scientifically tested A tool for examining cause-and-effect relationships |
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What are the main components of true experiments |
1. Control group and experimental group
2. Researcher manipulated variables 3. Random assignment |
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Main components of true experiments: control and experimental group |
True experiments must have a control group, which is a group of research participants that resemble the experimental group but do not receive the experimental conditon. Used as a base line for the DV |
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Main components of true experiments: researcher manipulated variable |
In true experiments, the researcher has to manipulate the variable that is hypothesised to affect the outcome variable that is being studied. |
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Main components of true experiments: Random assignment |
Research participants have to be randomly assigned to sample groups.
They must have an equal chance of being assigned to each sample groups
Random assignment ensures that the difference in the groups are due to chance |
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What are the advantages of true experiments? |
Experimental research designs are considered the most powerful way to establish causal relationships between variables.
High level of control over the experiment
Easy to replicate |
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What are the disadvantages of true experiments? |
Lacks ecological validity Experimenter effects Need for replication Results are open to interpretation: people will interpret information differently to the researcher and so control is highly important |
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What are variables? |
Any event, situation, behaviour or individual characteristic that varies. A variable must have two or more levels of value e.g. gender - male, female, non binary etc. |
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What are the different types of variables? |
IV: the variable which is manipulated by the researcher and is expected to have an effect on the DV
DV: the outcome variable measured in a study - it is expected to change as a result of changes in the IV Confounding variables: additional variables influencing the DV that aren't controlled by the experimenter but change systematically with the IV Use counterbalancing; a technique that can reduce possible confounding variables and can help to eliminate order effects Random variables: variables that might affect the DV that we cannot control. May increase variability and obscure the effects of the IV e.g participants variables Use random assignment: pre-existing differences are balanced across all conditions Any differences between the groups are now due to chance. |
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What is a population? |
A compete set of individuals with some common characteristic |
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What is a sample? |
A subset of individuals taken from a whole set of individuals (the population) with some common characteristic. |
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What is the aim of research in terms of samples and pops. |
To test a sample and then draw conclusions about the population as a whole The larger the sample, the more representative the results will be of the population |
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What are the different sampling techniques? |
Random sampling: every member of a target pop. has an equal chance of being chosen Opportunity sampling: selecting people who the the most easily available at the time of the testing |
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What are the two approaches to understanding behaviour? |
Hindsight: explaining things after the fact Scientific approach: understanding through prediction, control and theory building |
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Experimental design: what is between subject design? |
Each participant is randomly assigned to one of the conditions. Each participant is only used once. We are looking for differences between the groups |
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What are the advantages of between subject design? |
Produces random spread of participant variability No risk of order effects |
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What are the disadvantages of between group design? |
The influence of participant variables |
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Experimental design: what is the within subject design? |
Each participant is measured under both experimental and control conditions. Looking for differences between individuals |
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What are the advantages of the within subject design? |
Individual differences are eliminated Design requires fewer participants Greater statistical power |
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What are the disadvantages of the within subject design? |
Order effects e.g. participant variables Not always possible to use such designs e.g. gender differences |
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Experimental design: what is the matched design? |
Technique used to take advantage of the positive aspects of the between and within designs. There are different participants in each conditions but pairs of participants across the conditions are matched on important characteristics |
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What are the advantages of the matched design? |
Between group variability is reduced Captures the positives of between and within designs |
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What are the disadvantages of the matched design? |
Requires a lot of effort/resources |
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What are the advantages of observational studies? |
Ecological validity - takes place in a natural setting Overcomes ethical concerns - IV is naturally occuring (nothing is being manipulated by the researcher) Like case studies, observational studies is often used to generate new ideas Observations can help round out research by offering a real wold aspect to a hypothesis |
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What are the disadvantages of observational studies? |
Lack of control: no manipulation of the IV results in a lack of control of the situation. It is more suspectible to confounding variables.
No causal conclusions: the lack of control of the IV means no cause and effect relationship can be established.
Behavioural interpretation: obsetvations can include a high degree of researcher bias - subcincious opinions can affect analysis of behaviour. |
Lack of control No causal relationship can be established Reseacher bias/behavioural interpretation |
