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84 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Memory |
The storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning. |
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Three key processes (information processing model) |
Encoding Storage Retrieval |
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Encoding |
The entire process of converting information into a useable form or code that can be stored in memory. |
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Storage |
The retention of information over time. |
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Retrieval |
The process of locating and recovering the stored information from memory so that we are consciously aware of it. |
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Three distinguishable components of the Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model |
Sensory register Short-term register Long-term register |
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Maintenance rehearsal |
Repeating the information being remembered over and over again to retain it in short term memory. |
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Elaborative rehearsal |
The process of linking new information in a meaningful way with information already stored in memory or with other new information, to aid in its storage and retrieval from long-term memory. |
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Chunking information |
The grouping of separate bits of information into a larger single unit or 'chunk' of information. |
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Serial position effect |
A research finding that suggests that recall is better for items at the end and beginning of the list than for items in the middle of the list. |
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Primacy effect |
Describes superior recall of words at the beginning of a list. |
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Recency effect |
Describes superior recall of words at the end of a list. |
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Cause of the serial position effect |
The most acceptable explanation relates to differences between STM and LTM. If recall occurs immediately after learning, the last few items are remembered first because they are still in STM. The first few items are remembered most because they received more attention and rehearsal than other items and are therefore transferred into LTM. |
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Baddeley and Hitch's Model of Working Memory |
Describes the structure and function of working memory in terms of three components called the phonological loop (verbal memory), the visuo-spatial sketchpad (visual information) and the central executive. |
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Phonological loop |
Temporarily stores auditory information |
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Visuo-spatial sketchpad |
Temporarily stores visual information |
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Episodic buffer |
Gets information in and out of LTM |
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Central executive |
The commands center that determines what you pay attention to and helps with problem-solving |
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Craik and Lockhart's Level of Processing Framework |
The level, or depth, at which we process information during learning determines how well it will be stored in LTM. They proposed that memories are best encoded, organised and stored in LTM by meaning. |
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Levels of processing |
Information processed at the shallow level will be held only briefly whereas information processed at a deeper level will be held for much longer. Elaborative (deep) vs maintenance (shallow) rehearsal. |
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Problems with Craik and Lockhart's Theory |
One problem with this theory is that the level of depth is difficult to measure. It is accepted however, that deeper levels of processing lead to more effective encoding and therefore retrieval. |
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Long-term memory |
Relatively permanent memory system that holds vast amounts of information for a long period of time. LTM is inactive while STM is active. Retrieval cues are used to find information in LTM. Info from LTM is held in working memory while it is being used. |
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Forgetting |
Due to an inability to retrieve the information - not a loss of memory. |
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Types of LTM |
Procedural and Declarative |
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Procedural memory |
The memory of actions and skills that have been learned previously and involves knowing 'how to do something'. Also called implicit memories because the information can be retrieved through performance rather than intentional conscious recall or recognition. |
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Declarative memory |
The memory of specific facts or events that can be brought consciously to mind and explicitly stated or ‘declared’. Declarative memories are also called explicit memories. Can be broken up into episodic and semantic. |
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Episodic memory |
The declarative memory system that holds information about specific events or personal experiences. |
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Semantic memory |
The declarative memory system that stores the information that we have about the world. |
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Semantic network theory |
Proposes that information in LTM is organised systematically in the form of overlapping networks or grids of concepts that are interconnected and interrelated by meaningful links. |
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Short links between nodes |
The shorter the link between nodes the stronger the association, the less time it takes to activate related concepts to which they are linked. |
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Long links between nodes |
The longer the link between nodes the weaker the association between them and the longer it takes to activate the information that is further away. |
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Messages travelling through the body |
Received by dendrites - passes through soma - exits from axon - at the axon terminal it stimulates the release of neurotransmitters - neurotransmitters carry the message across the synaptic gap to the next neuron |
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Neurotransmitter |
A chemical substance produced by a neuron that carries messages to other neurons (lands on the dendrites of the post-synaptic neuron). When carrying a message to another neuron, neurotransmitter works by attaching itself to the sites of the post synaptic neuron that are specialised to receive that TYPE of neurotransmitter. |
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Types of Neurotransmitters |
Glutamate Dopamine Acetylcholine (ACh) Norepinephrine (NE) |
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Glutamate |
The main excitatory neurotransmitter for information transmission throughout the brain. It makes postsynaptic neurons more likely to fire. Glutamate plays a crucial role in the growth and strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons (2 specific type of glutamate receptors have to be present for glutamate to have these growing and strengthening effects - NMDA and AMPA) |
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Dopamine |
Number of roles including: - Experience of pleasure - Attention - Reward based learning - Initiation of voluntary movement - Strengthens synaptic connections and helps form LTM - Helps with working memory. More dopamine = stronger working memory |
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Acetylcholine (ACh) |
Number of roles including: - Learning - Attention - Dreaming - Sleeping - Motor control |
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Norepinephrine |
Encodes and helps with retaining emotional memories and significant experiences. Occurs as both a neurotransmitter and a ‘stress hormone’. It is secreted automatically during times of heightened emotional arousal. |
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Long-term potentiation |
Refers to the long lasting strengthening of synaptic connections of neurons. This then results in enhanced or more effective functioning of neurons whenever they are activated. LTP strengthens synaptic connections in a way that enables postsynaptic neurons to be more easily activated. |
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Amygdala |
a small medial temporal lobe structure next to and interconnected with the hippocampus with crucial roles in acquisition of condition emotional responses and the encoding and storage of emotional memories |
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Role of the Hippocampus |
- being involved in the formation of new long term memories, but not a storage site for long term memories - encoding new declarative (semantic and episodic) memories but not really procedural memories - Damage does not effect formation or retrieval of procedural memories but does effect declarative memories. - Does not effect STM |
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Consolidation theory |
Proposes that physical changes to the neurons in the brain occur when something new is being learned, and immediately following learning. These changes occur for a period of time after learning takes place |
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Consolidation theory - disruption |
This theory also proposes that if memory is disrupted during the consolidation phase, information may not be processed in LTM ad will therefore be lost. If disruption does not occur the information becomes a permanent part of LTM until it is retrieved. Consolidation is a gradual process and the material is vulnerable to disruption for up to 30 minutes. |
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Reconsolidation |
It has been proposed that after a memory is activated from LTM, it needs to be consolidated again to be stored back in LTM. This means that when we use an old memory we can alter it, or adjust it with the new memories formed before it is reconsolidated. This allows us to build on the old memories |
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Amnesia |
Memory loss - partial or complete, temporary or permanent. |
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Anterograde amnesia |
When brain damage causes loss of memory only for information or events experienced after the person experiences brain damage. |
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Korsakoff's syndrome |
A neurodegenerative disease involving severe memory disorders associated with damage to brain structures and areas involved with memory, such as the hippocampus (anterograde amnesia). |
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Retrograde amnesia |
An inability to remember information that was acquired before brain damage. |
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Dementia |
A general term that describes the symptoms of a variety of brain illnesses that progressively kill brain cells and result in irreversible structural and chemical changes in the brain that lead to permanent and severe cognitive loss. |
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Symptoms of dementia |
- Loss of mental capacity - Memory loss - Decline in intellectual ability - Poor judgement - Poor social skills - Abnormal emotional reactions |
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Autopsies of Alzheimer's patients |
Reveal high levels of the protein amyloid. This is not usually found in the brain and is toxic, poisoning the brain cells. It causes abnormal structures to form called plaques and tangles. Plaques are dense deposits of protein outside the neuron and tangles are twisted fibres that build up around the neuron. The area of the brain most affected is the hippocampus. |
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Forgetting |
The inability to retrieve previously stored information. Has an adaptive purpose and contributes to our survival and our sanity. |
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Forgetting curve |
Shows the pattern of forgetting that occurs over time. Created by Ebbinghaus. |
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Aim of the forgetting curve experiment |
To measure the amount of information retained and the rate at which it is forgotten. |
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Forgetting curve experiment |
A list of nonsense syllables is learnt. After a delay (ranging from 20 minutes to 31 days) the recall of these syllables is tested. |
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Findings of the forgetting curve experiment |
20 minutes later - 58% of syllables were remembered. 1 hour - 44% 1 day - 34% 1 week - 21% |
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Measures of retention |
Recall, recognition and relearning |
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Types of recall |
Free, serial and cued |
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Recall |
Involves being asked to reproduce information with the fewest possible cues to assist retrieval. |
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Free recall |
When participants are only asked to remember as much information as possible, in no particular order, e.g. the 7 dwarves. |
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Serial recall |
When participants are asked to remember as much information as possible, in a particular order, e.g. the 7 dwarves in alphabetical order. |
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Cued recall |
Makes use of specific cues to aid retrieval, e.g. being given the first letter of each of the 7 dwarfs names. |
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Recognition |
Involves identifying the correct information from among alternatives, such as in the previous question. |
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Relearning (the method of savings) |
Involves learning information again that has been previously learned and stored in long-term memory. Typically relearning something takes less time than it did to learn it originally. |
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Sensitivity |
Relearning is the most sensitive, meaning that it enables individuals to remember the most. |
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Context-dependent cues |
Environmental cues in the specific context (setting) where a memory was formed, which act as retrieval cues to help access the memories formed in that context. These cues may include the sights, sounds and smells within the specific situation. |
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State-dependent cues |
Associated with an individual’s internal physiological and/or psychological state at the time the memory was formed, which act as retrieval cues to help access those memories. |
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Cues |
An effective way of enhancing retrieval from LTM is to re-create the conditions under which the required information was originally learned. This approach is based on the encoding specificity principle. This principle involves a general ‘rule’ that the more closely the retrieval cues match the original learning conditions, the more likely it is that the information will be recalled. |
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Mnemonic devices |
Any internal strategy or method that makes it easier to encode, store or retrieve information - therefore enhancing or improving memory. |
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Acronyms |
Involve using the first letter of each word to be remembered to create a pronounceable word or name. The letters of the abbreviation act as a retrieval cue. They are essentially a type of chunking. |
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Acrostics |
Involve constructing a phrase or sentence from words that begin with the first letter of each word of the information to be recalled. Acrostics can be useful when trying to remember information in a sequence. |
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Narrative chaining |
Links unrelated items to create a story-like sequence of events. |
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Elizabeth Loftus |
Studied the accuracy of eye witness testimony and found that leading questions can be used to manipulate memory |
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Leading question |
A question that has content or is phrased in such a way as to suggest what answer is desired or to lead to the desired answer. |
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Why do we forget |
Incorrect retrieval cue Interference from competing information Memory fades through disuse over time |
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Retrieval cue |
Any stimulus that assists the process of locating and recovering information stored in memory. |
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Tip of the tongue phenomenon |
Retrieval failure - the feeling of being aware of knowing something, being confident that you will remember it at any moment, but not being able to retrieve the information at that point in time. Has some partial retrieval. |
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Interference theory |
Forgetting in LTM occurs because other memories interfere with the retrieval of what we are trying to recall, particularly if the other memories are similar. |
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Retroactive interference |
When new information interferes with the ability to remember old information |
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Proactive interference |
Information learned previously can interfere with our ability to remember new information |
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Motivated forgetting |
The inability to retrieve information because the individual derives some benefit from not remembering. |
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Repression |
Unconsciously blocking a memory of an event or experience from entering conscious awareness |
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Suppression |
Involves being motivated to forget an event or experience by making a deliberate conscious effort to keep it out of conscious awareness |
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Decay theory |
Memories that are formed and not used begin to fade, become weaker with time, and eventually decay to the point where they can no longer be recollected- that is, they are forgotten. |
