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442 Cards in this Set
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the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
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psychology
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founder of modern psychology
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Wilhelm Wundt
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Founder of Structuralism
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E.B. Tichener
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Theory that analyzed the basic elements of thoughts and sensations to determine the structure of conscious experience.
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structuralism
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psychological perspective that emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes
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Gestalt psychology
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First american psychologist and author of the first psychology textbook
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William James
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theory that emphasized the functions of consciousness and the ways consciousness helps people adapt to their environment
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functionalism
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founder of psychoanalysis
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Sigmund Freud
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School of thought that focuses on how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts; contemporary version is called psychodynamic perspective
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psychoanalytic perspective
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Russian psychologist who showed that animals learn some things through association
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Ivan Pavlov
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Founder of behaviorism
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John B. Watson
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School of thought that focuses on how we learn observable responses
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Behaviorist perspective
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American psychologist whose brand of behaviorism focused on the role of responses in learning
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b.f. skinner
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school of thought that focuses on the study of conscious experience, the individual's freedom to choose, and capacity for personal growth
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humanistic psychology
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leader in the humanistic psychology movement
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abraham maslow
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leader in the humanistic movement
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carl rogers
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developmental and cognitive psychologist known for his studies of children's thought processes
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jean piaget
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first american man to earn a phd in psychology; opened first psych lab in the us; founded, and was first president of APA
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G. Stanley Hall
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first woman to complete the requirements for a phd in pscyh; first woman to be elected president of APA
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Mary Whiton Calkins
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First woman to receive a PHD in psychology
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Margaret Floy Washburn
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First African American Man to receive a phd in psychology
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Francis Cecil Sumner
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First African American woman to receive a phd in psych
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Inez Beverly Prosser
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a particular view of behavior and/or mental processes that has gionrown into a movement
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psychological perspective
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school of thought that focuses on how we take in, process, store, and retrieve information
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cognitive perspective
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school of thought that focuses on the physical structures and substances underlying a particular behavior, thought, or emotion
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biological perspective
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school of thought that focuses on how thinking or behavior changes in different contexts or situations
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social-cultural perspective
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school of thought that focues on how much our genes and our environment influence our individual differences
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behavior genetics
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movement that focuses on the study of optimal human functioning and the factors that allow individuals and communities to thrive
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positive psychology
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pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
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basic research
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scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
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applied research
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a method of learning about the world through the application of critical thinking and tools such as observation, experimentation, and statistical analysis
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scientific method
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a tendency for researchers to engage in behaviors and selectively notice evidence that supports their hypotheses or expectations
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researcher bias
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thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. rather, it examines assumptions, dscerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
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critical thinking
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a tendency for researcher participants to respond in a certain way because they know they are being observed or they believe they know what the researcher wants
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participant bias
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observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
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naturalistic observation
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a research technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
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case study
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a research project designed to discover the degree to which two variables are related to each other
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correlational study
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a research technique designed to discover the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a sample of people through the use of questionaires or interviews
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survey method
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all the cases in a group, crom which samples may be drawn for a study
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population
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a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
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random sample
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a research technique that studies the same group of individuals over a long period of time
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longitudinal study
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a research technique that compares individuals from different age groups at one time
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cross-sectional study
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a research method in which the researcher manipulates one or more factors (indie variables) to observe the effect on another variable (dependent var) while controlling for confounding variables
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experiment
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an investigator's testable prediction about the outcome of a research
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hypothesis
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a specification of the exact procedures used to make a variable specific and measurable for research purposes
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operational definition
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the research variable that a researcher actively manipulates, and if the hypothesis is correct, will cause a change in the dependent variable
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indie variable (IV)
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the research variable that is influenced by the independent variable. in psych, the behavior or mental process where the impact of the indie variable is measured
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depenedent variable (DV)
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the participants in an experiment who are exposed to the treatment, that is, the indie var
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experimental group
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the participants in an experiment who are not exposed to the indi var. these individuals function as a comparison for the experimental group participants
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control gorup
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assigning participants to experimental and control groups by change, thus minimizing preexisting differences among those assigned to different groups
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random assignment
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in an experiment, a variable, other than the indie variable, that could influence the dependent variable. must be used to draw cause and effect conclusions from an experiment
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confounding variable
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an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant as to the expected outcome of the research. this procedure is used to control for the effects of expectation as a confounding variable.
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double-blind procedure
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a nonactive substance or condition thats administered instead of a drug or active agent to see if the drug has an effect beyond the expectations produced by taking it
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placebo
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repeating a research study to see whether the results can be reliably reproduced. unless a study can be replicated, the results are likely to be a fluke occurrence.
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replication
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the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
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behavior genetics
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the biochemical units of heredity that make up the crhomosomes; a segment of dna
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genes
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every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
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environment
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threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
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chromosomes
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a complex molecule containing genetic info that makes up the chromosomes
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dna (deoxyribnucleic acid)
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the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in its chromosomes
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genome
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random errors in gene replication that lead to a change in the individual's genetic code; the source of all genetic diversity
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mutation
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the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
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evolutionary psycohlogy
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the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
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natural selection
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twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
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identical twins
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twins who develop from separate eggs. they are genetically no closer than any other brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment
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fraternal twins
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the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes
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heritability
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the shared attitudes, beliefs, norms, and behaviors of a group communicated from one generation to the next
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culture
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understood rules for accepted and expected behavior; norms prescribe proper behavior
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norms
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giving prority to one's own goals over group gorals, and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identification
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individualism
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giving priority to the goals of one's group and defining one's identity accordingly
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collectivism
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the fertilized egg; it enters a two week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo
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zygote
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the biochemical units of heredity that direct how our cells become specialized for various functions during prenatal development
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genes
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the developing human organism from about two weeks after fertilization through the end of the 8th week
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embryo
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the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
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fetus
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substances that cross the placental barrier and prevent the fetus from developing normally
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teratogens
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a series of physical and cognitive abnormalities that appear in children whose mothers consumed large amounts of alcohol while prgnant. sympotoms include noticeable facial misproportions
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fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
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a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to open the mouth and search for the nipple; this is an automatic, unlearned response
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rooting reflex
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biological growth processes that enable orderly chagnes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
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maturation
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all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering
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cognition
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concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information
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schemas
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interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas
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assimilation
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adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
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accomodation
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in piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to 2 years) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impresions and motor activities
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sensorimotor stage
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the awareness that things continue to exist even when you cannot see or hear them
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object permanence
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in piaget's theory, the stage from 2 to 7 years during which a child learns ot use language but doesn't yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
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preoperational stage
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the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and # remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
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conservation
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in piaget's theory, the inability of the preoperational child to take another's point of view
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egocentrism
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in piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development from 6 to 11 years during which children gain the mental skills that let them think logically about concrete events
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concrete operational stage
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in piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (beginning about 12) during which ppl begin to think logically about abstract concepts and form strategies
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formal operational stage
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the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age
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stranger anxiety
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an emotional tie with another person; young children demonstrate attachment by seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation
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attachment
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psychologist who researched the relationship of body contact and nourishment to attachment, using infant monkeys and artificial mothers
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Harry Harlow
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an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
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critical period
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research who focused on critical attachment periods in baby birds, a concept he called imprinting
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Konrad Lorenz
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the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life
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imprinting
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style of parenting marked by imposing rules and expecting obedience
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authoritarian parenting
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style of parenting makred by submitting to children's desires, making few demands, and using little punishment
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permissive parenting
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a style of parenitng marked by making demands on the child, being responsive, setting and enforcing rules, and discussing the reasons behind the rules
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authoritative parenting
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the transition from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
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adolescence
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the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
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puberty
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the body structures (ovaries, testes, external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible
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primary sex characteristics
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nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair
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secondary sex characteristics
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an enduring sexual attraction toward memebers of either the other gender or one's own gender
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sexual orientation
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created a three-stage theory of moral development
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Lawrence Kohlberg
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Created an 8 stage theory of social development; author of the psychosocial developmental stage theory
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Erik Erikson
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One's sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
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identity
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In Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving, open relationships, a primary task in early adulthood
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intimacy
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the culturally preferred timing of social events sucuh as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
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social clock
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the time of natural cessation of menstruation
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menopause
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a progrsesive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and finally, physical functioning
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Alzheimer's disease
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the mental disintegration that accompanies alcoholism, tumor, stroke, aging, and most often, Alzheimer's disease
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senile dementia
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one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
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fluid intelligence
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one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
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crystallized intelligence
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a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
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neuron
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the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body (soma)
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dendrite
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the cell body of a neuron, which contains the nucleus and other parts that keep the cell healthy
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soma
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the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
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puberty
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the body structures (ovaries, testes, external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible
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primary sex characteristics
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nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair
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secondary sex characteristics
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an enduring sexual attraction toward memebers of either the other gender or one's own gender
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sexual orientation
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created a three-stage theory of moral development
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Lawrence Kohlberg
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Created an 8 stage theory of social development; author of the psychosocial developmental stage theory
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Erik Erikson
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One's sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
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identity
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In Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving, open relationships, a primary task in early adulthood
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intimacy
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the culturally preferred timing of social events sucuh as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
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social clock
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the time of natural cessation of menstruation
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menopause
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a progrsesive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and finally, physical functioning
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Alzheimer's disease
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the mental disintegration that accompanies alcoholism, tumor, stroke, aging, and most often, Alzheimer's disease
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senile dementia
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one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
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fluid intelligence
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one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
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crystallized intelligence
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a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
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neuron
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the bushy branching extensions of a neruon that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body (soma)
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dendrite
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the cell body of a neuron that contains the nucleus and other parts that keep the cell healthy
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soma
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the extensions of a neuron through which neural impulses are sent
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axon
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the endpoint of a neuron, where neurotransmitters are stored
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axon terminal
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a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron
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action potential
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the recharging phase when a neuron, after firing, can't generate another action potential
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refractory period
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the state of a neuron when its at rest and capable of generating an action potential
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resting potential
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the principle stating that if a neuron fires it always fires at the same intensity all action potentials are the same strength
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all-or-none principle
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the tiny, fluid filled gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of another
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synapse
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a chemical messenger that travels across the synapse from one neuron to the next and influences whether a neuron will generate an action potential (impulse)
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neurotransmitter
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a neurotransmitter effect that makes it more likely that the receiving neuron will generate an action potential
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excitatory effect
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a neurotransmitter effect that makes it less likely that areceiving neuron will generate an impulse
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inhibitory effect
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specialized cells in the sensory systems of the body that can turn other kinds of energy into impulses that the nervous system can process
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receptor cells
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nerves that carry information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system
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sensory nerves
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nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord responsible for processing information related to sensory input and motor output
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interneurons
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nerves that carry information to the muscles and glands from the central nervous system
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motor nerves
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a neurotransmitter that triggers muscle contraction and affects learning and memory and alzhimer's disease
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acetylcholine
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a drug that blocks the effect of a neurotransmitter
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antagonist
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a drug that boosts the effect of a neurotransmtter
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agonist
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a neurotransmitter that affects learning, attention, and emotion; excess dopamine activity is associated with schizophrenia
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dopamine
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a neurotransmitter that affects hunger, sleep, arouusal, and mood; serotonin appears in lower than normal levels in depressed persons
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serotonin
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the brain and the spinal cord
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central nervous system (cns)
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the sensory and motor nerves that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
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peripheral nervous system (PNS)
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the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles
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somatic nervous system
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the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs. its subdivisions are the sympathetic (arousing) division and the parasympathetic (calming) division
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autonomic nervous system
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the part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to deal with perceived threats
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sympathetic division
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the part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body
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parasypmathetic division
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one of the body's 2 communication systems; a set of glands that produce hormones
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endocrine system
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chemical messengers produced by the endocrine glands and circulated in the blood
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hormone
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the endocrine system's highly influential master gland that in conjunction with the brain controls the other endocrine glands
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pituitary gland
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nerves that carry information to the muscles and glands from the central nervous system
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motor nerves
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a neurotransmitter that triggers muscle contraction and affects learning and memory and alzhimer's disease
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acetylcholine
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a drug that blocks the effect of a neurotransmitter
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antagonist
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a drug that boosts the effect of a neurotransmtter
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agonist
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a neurotransmitter that affects learning, attention, and emotion; excess dopamine activity is associated with schizophrenia
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dopamine
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a neurotransmitter that affects hunger, sleep, arouusal, and mood; appears in lower than normal levels in depressed persons
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serotonin
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the brain and the spinal cord
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central nervous system (cns)
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the sensory and motor nerves that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
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peripheral nervous system (PNS)
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the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles
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somatic nervous system
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the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs. its subdivisions are the sympathetic (arousing) division and the parasympathetic (calming) division
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autonomic nervous system
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the part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to deal with perceived threats
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sympathetic division
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the part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body
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parasypmathetic division
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one of the body's 2 communication systems; a set of glands that produce hormones
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endocrine system
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chemical messengers produced by the endocrine glands and circulated in the blood
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hormone
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the endocrine system's highly influential master gland that in conjunction with the brain controls the other endocrine glands
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pituitary gland
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endocrine gland that helps regulate energy level in the body
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thyroid gland
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endocrine glands that help to arouse the body in times of stress
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adrenal glands
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oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; becomes responsible for automatic survival functions
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brainstem
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base of brainstem; controls lifesupport fxns ie heartbeat breathing
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medulla
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nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling wakefulness and arousal
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reticular formation
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brain's sensory switchboard located on top of the brainstem; directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex
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thalamus
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the little brain attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movements and balance
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cerebellum
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a ring of structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral cortex; helps regulate important functions ie memory, fear, aggression, hunger, thirst. includes hypothalamus, hippocampus, nd amygdala.
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limbic system
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neural structure below thalamus; directs maintenance activities ie eating, drinking, body temp and linked to emotion
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hypothalamus
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a neural center located in the limbic system; it helps process new memories for permanent storage
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hippocampus
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2 almond-shaped neural clusters in the limbic system that are linked to emotions, such as feare and anger
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amygdala
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the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that form the cerebbral hemispheres; body's ultimate control and info processing center
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cerebral cortex
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the long crack running all the way from the front to the back of the cerebral cortex, separating the left and right hemispheres
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longitudin fissure
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large band of neural fibers that connects the two brain hemispheres and carries messages between them
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corpus callosum
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a brain area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
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motor cortex
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a brain area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations
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somatosensory cortex
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a brain area of the frontal lobe, ususally in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
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broca's area
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a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
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wernicke's area
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brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage esp. in children
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plasticity
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process by which our sensory systems and nervous system receive stimuli from our environment
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sensation
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information processing that focuses on the raw material entering through our eyes, ears, and other organs of sensation
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bottom up processing
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process of organizing and interpreting sensory info
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perception
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info processing that focuses on our expectations and experiences in interpreting incoming sensory info
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top down processing
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min stimulation needed to detec a particular stimulus
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absolute threshold
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just noticeable difference - min difference that a person can detect between two stimuli
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difference threshold
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set formulas and principles that predict when we will detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background noise. depends on qualities of the stimulus, envrionment, and person detecting
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signal detection theory
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diminished sensitivity as a result of constant stimulation
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sensory adaptation
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focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus to the exclusion of others
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selective attention
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an energy spectrum that includes xrays, radar, radio waves, etc.
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electromagnetic energy
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color of light; determined by wavelength of light energy
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hue
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height of a wave
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amplitude
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the chemical receptor cells for smell, located in the nasal passages
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olfactory cells
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the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
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kinesthetic sense
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the system for sensing body orientation and balance, located in the semicircular canals of the inner ear
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vestibular sense
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the whole or the organizational patterns that we tend to perceive; the whole is greater than the sum of its parts
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gestalt
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the organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings
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figure-ground
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perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into understandable groups
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grouping
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place items taht look similar in the same group
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similarity
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if objects are close together, place them in the same group
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proximity
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brains tendency to look for the whole, not the parts, drives us to fill in the gaps in the perceptual field
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closure
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ability to see in 3 dimensions and judge distance
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depth perception
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a lab device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
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visual cliff
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depth cues that require the use of both eyes
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binocular cues
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depth cues that require the use of only one eye
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monocular cues
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a binocular depth cue resulting from slightly different images produced by the separation of the retinas in the left and right eyes
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retinal disparity
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a binocular depth cue related to the tensino in the eye muscles when the eyes track inward to focus on objects close to the viewer
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convergence
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a mental predisposition to perceive something one way and not another
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perceptual set
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concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret info
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schemas
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setting or environment in which we interpret sensory stimuli
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context
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controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input
|
extrasensory perception (ESP)
|
|
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the three types of esp
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precognition - knowledge of the future
telepathy clairvoyance - ability to see distant events |
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a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
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motivation
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a complex, unlearned behavior thats rigidly patterned throughout a species
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instinct
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in drive-reduction theory, aroused tensions states created by imbalances that prompt an organism to restore the balance, typically by reducing teh drive
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drives
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the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
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drive-reduction theory
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the theory that a degree of psychological arousal helps performance, but only up to a certain point
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Yerkes Dodson Law
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a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level
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homeostasis
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a desire to perform a behavior because of promised rewards or threats of punishment
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extrinsic motivation
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a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective
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intrinsic motivation
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the need to live up to one's fullest and unique potential according to maslow
|
self-actualization
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desire for significant accomplishment, attaining a high standard
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achievement motivation
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Neo-freudian who first established the concept of achivement motivation and also developed important personality testing tools
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Henry Murray
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goal oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, focuses attention
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task leadership
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group oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflic, and offers support
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social leadership
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the point at which an individual's weight thermostat is supposedly set. when body falls below this rate, increased hunger and lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight
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set point
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the body's resting rate of energy expenditure
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basal metabolic rate
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anorexic's name
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anorexia nervosa
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bulimia
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bulimia nervosa
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whole organism responses, involving physsiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience
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emotion
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the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to an emotion arousing stimulus
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James-Lange theory
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the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emtoion
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cannon-bard theory
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the american psycholoogists who made up the two-factor theory
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stanley schacter and jerome singer
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the theory that to experience emotion one must be physically aroused, and cognitively label the arousal
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two-factor theory
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american psychologist who concluded that some emotional reactions involve no deliberate thinking and cognition is not always necessary for emotion
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robert zajonc
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american psychologist who concluded that some emotional responses don't require conscious thought
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richard lazarus
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process by which we perceive and respond to certain events,called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging
|
stress
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|
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a subfield of psychology that focuses on how stress affects our wellbeing and our health
|
health psychology
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|
Psychologist who researched a recurring response to stress that he called the general adaptation syndrome
|
Hans Selye
|
|
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Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in 3 stages - alarm, resistance, exhaustion
|
general adaptation syndrome (GAS)
|
|
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physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion brought on by persistent job-related stress
|
burnout
|
|
|
American psychologist and proponent of positive psychology
|
Martin Seligman
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the common result of a healthy lifestyle and healthy attitudes
|
wellness
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|
|
subfield of psychology that focuses on the study of optimal human functioning and the factors that allow individuals and communities to thrive
|
positive psychology
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|
a state of optimal experience; for flow to ccur, the experiences must be a challenge requiring skill, have clear goals, and provide feedback
|
flow
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the habits we have for thinking about the good or bad causes of events
|
explanatory style
|
|
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the belief that bad events are temporary, not your fault, won't have broader effects beyond present circumstances
|
optimism
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|
the opposite of optimism, tendency to expect worse
|
pessimism
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|
|
the discomfort adn distress that follows discontinuning the use of an addictive drug
|
withdrawal
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|
|
a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience; aka conditioning
|
learning
|
|
|
type of learning where a stimulus gains the power to cause a response because it predicts another stimulus that already produces the response
|
classical conditioning
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|
anything in the environment that one can respond to
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stimulus
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any behavior or action
|
response
|
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|
view that psychology should restrict its efforts to studying observable behaviors, not mental processes
|
behaviorism
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|
|
founder of behaviorism
|
john watson
|
|
|
mental processes; all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering
|
cognition
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|
|
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that triggers a response automatically and reflexively
|
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
|
|
|
in classical conditioning, atuomatic resposne to UCS
|
unconditioned response ucr
|
|
|
a previously neutral stimulus that, through learning, has gained power to cause a conditioned response
|
CS conditioned stimulus
|
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|
response to CS conditioned stimulus
|
conditioned response CR
|
|
|
in classical conditioning, process of deeveloping a learned response
|
acquisition
|
|
|
in classical conditioning, the diminishing of a learned response; when a UCS doesn't follow a CS
|
extinction
|
|
|
reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR
|
spontaneous recovery
|
|
|
process in which an organism produces same response to 2 similar stimuli
|
generalization
|
|
|
process in which an organism produces different responses to 2 similar stimuli
|
discrimination
|
|
|
founded taste aversion, which established that classical conditioning was influenced by biological predispositions
|
john garcia and robert koelling
|
|
|
developed with allan wagner a new theory that emphasized the importance of cognitive processes in classical conditioning
|
robert rescorla and allan wagner
|
|
|
a type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on the consequence that follows that behavior
|
operant conditioning
|
|
|
author of the law of effect, the principle that forms the basis of operant conditioning
|
edward thorndike
|
|
|
developed fundamental principles and techniques of operant conditioning
|
bf skinner
|
|
|
any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior
|
reinforcement
|
|
|
any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior
|
punishment
|
|
|
anything that increases the likelyhood of a behavior by following it with a desirable event or state
|
positive reinforment
|
|
|
anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with the removal of an undesirable event or state
|
negative reinforcement
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|
|
something naturally reinforcing ie food, warmth, water
|
primary reinforcement
|
|
|
something that is learned to value ie money
|
secondary reinforcement
|
|
|
reinforcement of behaviors that are more and more similar to the one you want to occur. the operant technique used to establish new behaviors
|
shaping
|
|
|
ability to distinguish between two similar signals/stimlui
|
discrimination
|
|
|
loss of a behavior when no consequence follows it in operant
|
extinction
|
|
|
a schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows every correct response
|
continuous reinforcement
|
|
|
a schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows only some correct responses
|
partial reinforcement schedule
|
|
|
learning that occurs but isn't apparent until the learner has an incentive to demonstrate it
|
latent learning
|
|
|
a mental represenation fo a place
|
cognitive map
|
|
|
the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. reward may lessen and replace the perosn's original, natural motivaiton, so that the behavior stops if the reward is eliminated
|
overjustificatio neffect
|
|
|
learning by observing others
|
observational learning
|
|
|
person observed in observational learning
|
model
|
|
|
process of observing and imitating a specfic behavior
|
modeling
|
|
|
a major figure in observational learning
|
albert bandura
|
|
|
Attention
Retention Ability to reproduce behavior Motivation |
aware of surrounding behavior
remembering behavior ability to do the behavior motivated if model observed is rewarded |
|
|
negative, destructive unhelpful behavior
|
antisocial behavior
|
|
|
positive, constructive helpful behavior
|
prosocial
|
|
|
three basic steps of information processing model
|
encoding, storage, retrieval
|
|
|
process of getting info into memory system. first stage of info processing model
|
encoding
|
|
|
retention of encoded info over time. second stage
|
storage
|
|
|
process of getting information out of memory storage. third stage of ino processing model of memory
|
retrieval
|
|
|
unconscious encoding of some info such as space time frequency without effort
|
automatic processing
|
|
|
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
|
effortful processing
|
|
|
conscious repetition of info
|
rehearsal
|
|
|
german philsopher who conducted pioneering memory studies
|
hermann ebbinghaus
|
|
|
rehearshal of info beyond where it has been learned. effective strategy for improving memory
|
overlearning
|
|
|
a memory trick or technique
|
mnemonic device
|
|
|
a mnemonic device in which you associate items you want to remember with imagniary places
|
method of loci
|
|
|
mnemonic device associate items with a list of peg words you already memorized
|
peg-word system
|
|
|
organizing info into meaningful units
|
chunking
|
|
|
working memory
|
short term memory
|
|
|
relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
|
longterm memory
|
|
|
memory of facts and experiences that one must consciously retrieve and declare
|
explicit memory
|
|
|
memory of skills and procedures like how to walk without conscious recollection
|
implicit memory
|
|
|
a measure of memoery in which you must retrieve info you learned earlier, fill in the blank
|
recall
|
|
|
measure of memory in which you must identify items you learned earlier, multiple choice
|
recognition
|
|
|
the enhanced ability to retrieve info when your in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the info
|
context effect
|
|
|
longeterm memories that are especially resistant to forgetting and are likely to last a lifetime
|
permastore memory
|
|
|
disruptive effect of earlier learning on the recall of recently stored info
|
proactive interference
|
|
|
disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of previously stored info
|
retroactive interference
|
|
|
process of moving anxiety prodcuing memories to the unconscious
|
repression
|
|
|
incorporating misleading ino into one's momery of an event
|
misinformation effect
|
|
|
awareness of yourself and your environment
|
consciousness
|
|
|
any assertion not based on science
|
pseudoscientific claim
|
|
|
periodic physiological fluctuations
|
biological rhythms
|
|
|
biological rhythyms such as temperature that occur approx every 24 hours
|
circadian rhythms
|
|
|
biological rhthyms that occur more than once each day
|
ultradian rhythms
|
|
|
biological rhythms that occur once month or once a season
|
infradian rhythms
|
|
|
sleep researcher who coined the term REM
|
william dement
|
|
|
a hormone that helps regulate daily biological rhythyms
|
melatonin
|
|
|
bursts of brainwave activity that characterize stage 2 of n-rem sleep
|
spindles
|
|
|
stages 3 and 4 of n-rem sleep; slow delta waves; is minimal during last 4 hours of sleep
|
delta sleep
|
|
|
the period of sleep in which sleep stages 1-4 occur; not characterized by eye movement or vivid dreams
|
n-rem sleep (non-rapid eye movement)
|
|
|
recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur; aka paradoxxical sleep muscles are relaxed but body systems are active
|
rem sleep rapid eye movement
|
|
|
sleep disorder characterized by temp cessations of breathing during sleep and consequent momentary reawakenings
|
sleep apnea
|
|
|
sleepwalking; in stages of n-rem sleep
|
somnambulism
|
|
|
sleep-related problem characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; occur in stage 4 sleep within 2 or 3 hours of falling asleep and seldom remembered
|
night terrors
|
|
|
theory that powerful social influences can produce a state of hypnosis
|
social influence theory
|
|
|
theory that during hypnosis, our consciousness splits so that one aspect of consciousness is not aware of the other parts
|
divided consciousness theory
|
|
|
a chemical substance that alters perceptions, mood, behavior
|
psychoactive drug
|
|
|
state of physiological/psychological need to take more of a substance
|
dependence
|
|
|
discomfort and dsitress that follows dependcey on a drug thats discontinued
|
withdrawal
|
|
|
reduced responsiveness to a drug, prompting to increase dosage
|
tolerance
|
|
|
psycho active drugs get into your synapses and affect neurotrans in 3 ways
|
binding with receptors (mimick neurotrans effects); blocking receptor sites (preventing neurotrans from binding); blocking neurotrans reabsportion
|
|
|
5 classifcations of psychoactive drugs
|
depressants, opiates, stimulants, ahllucinogens, amrijuana
|
|
|
drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body function; name them
|
depressants; alcohol and sedatives
|
|
|
drugs that depress activity of cns, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment; are sedatives
|
barbiturates
|
|
|
drugs that depress activity of cns without most of the side effects associated with barbiturates
|
benzodiazepines; ex: Valium
|
|
|
opium and its derivatives; depress neural activity and temp lessen pain and anxiety
|
opium such as morphine and heroin
|
|
|
strong sedative and pain-relieving drug from opium
|
morphine
|
|
|
natural opiatelike neurotrans linked to pain control and to pleasure "morphine within"
|
endorphins
|
|
|
drugs that excited neural activity and speed up body functions; name them
|
stimulants; caffeine, nicotine, and powerful amphetamines and cocaine
|
|
|
stimulant found in coffee, chocolate, tea, and soft drinks
|
caffeine
|
|
|
stimulant derived from leaves of the cocoa plant
|
cocaine
|
|
|
drugs that stimultae neural activity, speeding up body fxns and associated energy and mood changes; mimic adrenaline, aka...
|
amphetamines: speed, uppers
|
|
|
crystal, crank; more potent than regular amphetamines; ice
|
methamphetamines
|
|
|
psychedelic mind manifesting drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
|
hallucinogens
|
|
|
powerful hallucinogenic drug aka acid
|
lsd (lysergic acid diethylamide)
|
|
|
aka mdma, hallucinogenic drug produces lowered inhibitions, pleasant feelings, and greater acceptance of otehrs. may result in perma brain damage
|
ecstasy
|
|
|
leaves stems resin and flowers from the hemp plant that when smoked lower inhibitions and produce feelings of relaxation and mild euphoria
|
marijuana
|
|
|
a mental grouping based on shared similarity
|
concept
|
|
|
a typical best example incorporating the major features of a concept
|
prototype
|
|
|
a problem solving strategy that guarantees the solution to the problem
|
algorithm
|
|
|
a rule of thumb problem solving strategy that makes a solution more likely and efficient but doesn't guarantee a solution
|
heuristic
|
|
|
sudden realization of the solution to a problem
|
insight
|
|
|
a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way.
may may not be helpful in solving a new problem |
mental set
|
|
|
mental set that hinders the solution of a problem
|
fixation
|
|
|
tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual fxns; impediment to problem solving
|
functional fixedness
|
|
|
tendency to focus on info that supports one's preconceptions
|
confirmation bias
|
|
|
estimating likelihood of events based on availability in memory.
|
availability heuristic
|
|
|
tendency to be more confident that correct when estimating the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments
|
overconfidence
|
|
|
way an issue is worded or presented; can influence decisions and judgments
|
framing
|
|
|
clinging to one's intial beliefs even after new info discredits the basis on which they were formed
|
belief perseverance
|
|
|
spoke, written, or gestured words and ways we combine them to communicate meaning
|
language
|
|
|
linguist who argues children ahve a predisposition to learn language; hardwired to pick up vocab and grammar
|
noam chomsky
|
|
|
noam chomskybelieved children learned language through associations, imitation, and reinforcement
|
b.f. skinner
|
|
|
linguist who developed the linguistic relativity hypothesis
|
ben whorf
|
|
|
Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think
|
linguistic relativity hypothesis
|
|
|
ability to learn from experience, solve probs, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
|
intelligence
|
|
|
author of contemporary theory of multiple intelligences consiting of 8 separate kinds of intelligence
|
howard gardner
|
|
|
author of contemporary theory of multiple intelligences consisting of analytical, creative, and practical intelligence
|
robert sternberg
|
|
|
ability to perceive, express, understand, regulate emotions
|
emotional intelligence
|
|
|
a factor that spearman believed underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
|
general intelligence
|
|
|
developed first test to classify chilodren's abilities using the concept of mental age
|
alfred binet
|
|
|
the chronological age that corresponds to the difficulty level of the questions children can answer.
|
mental age
|
|
|
actual age.
|
chronological age
|
|
|
adapted binet's tests for use in the US as the stanford-binet intelligence test, which reported intelligence as a calculated IQ score.
|
lewis terman
|
|
|
widely used american revision (by terman at stanford u) of binet's original test
|
stanford-binet intelligence test
|
|
|
number that results from terman and stern's formula: mental age divided by chronological age times 100
|
IQ intelligence quotient
|
|
|
a series of intelligence tests tailored to 3 different age groups;
|
Wechsler intelligence scales
|
|
|
orginially developed by US army, administered by teachers in classrooms; not as reliable as individual tests
|
group intelligence tests
|
|
|
tests that attempt to measure what the test-taker has accomplished
|
achievement tests
|
|
|
a problem solving strategy that guarantees the solution to the problem
|
algorithm
|
|
|
a rule of thumb problem solving strategy that makes a solution more likely and efficient but doesn't guarantee a solution
|
heuristic
|
|
|
sudden realization of the solution to a problem
|
insight
|
|
|
a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way.
may may not be helpful in solving a new problem |
mental set
|
|
|
mental set that hinders the solution of a problem
|
fixation
|
|
|
tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual fxns; impediment to problem solving
|
functional fixedness
|
|
|
tendency to focus on info that supports one's preconceptions
|
confirmation bias
|
|
|
estimating likelihood of events based on availability in memory.
|
availability heuristic
|
|
|
tendency to be more confident that correct when estimating the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments
|
overconfidence
|
|
|
way an issue is worded or presented; can influence decisions and judgments
|
framing
|
|
|
clinging to one's intial beliefs even after new info discredits the basis on which they were formed
|
belief perseverance
|
|
|
spoke, written, or gestured words and ways we combine them to communicate meaning
|
language
|
|
|
linguist who argues children ahve a predisposition to learn language; hardwired to pick up vocab and grammar
|
noam chomsky
|
|
|
noam chomskybelieved children learned language through associations, imitation, and reinforcement
|
b.f. skinner
|
|
|
linguist who developed the linguistic relativity hypothesis
|
ben whorf
|
|
|
french phsyican ho worked to refrom treatment of people with mental disorders
|
Philippe Pinel
|
|
|
DSM-IV-TR
|
diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders
|
|
|
a vague feeling of apprehension or nervousness
|
anxiety
|
|
|
disruptive levels of persisent, unexplained feelings of apprehension and tenseness
|
generalized anxiety disorder
|
|
|
sudden bouts of intense, unexplained panic
|
panic disorder
|
|
|
dissociative disorder characterized by loss of memory in reaction to a traumatic event
|
dissociative amnesia
|
|
|
dissocitiave idsorder characterized by loss of identity and travel to a new location
|
dissociative fugue
|
|
|
disorder - disorganized and delusional thinking , disturbed perceptions, inapproapriate emotions and actions
|
schizophrenia
|
|
|
false beliefs - symptoms of schizophrenia
|
delusions
|
|
|
false perceptions
|
hallucinations
|
|
|
psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and lasting behavior patterns that disrupt social functioning
|
personality behaviors
|
|
|
treatment of psychological disorders that involves changing the brain's functioning by using prescribed drugs, electroconvulsvie therapy, and surgery
|
biomedical therapy
|
|
|
release of patients from mental hospitals to the community at large. as a result of the development of drug treatments. 80%
|
deinstitutionalization
|
|
|
a category of medications used primarily to treat schizophrenia
|
antipsychotic drugs
|
|
|
a category of medications used to treat people with anxiety disorders or suffering stress
|
antianxiety drug
|
|
|
a category of medications used primarily to treat major depression
|
antidepressant drugs
|
|
|
a therapy for major depression in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anethetized patient
|
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
|
|
|
the theory that we tend to give a casual explanation for someone's behavior, often by crediting either the situation or person's disposition
|
attribution theory
|
|
|
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
|
fundamental attribution error
|
|
|
tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
|
foot-in-door phenomenon
|
|
|
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two fo our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. for ex. when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes
|
cognitive dissonance
|
|
|
adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
|
conformity
|
|
|
social psychologist who researched circumstances under which people conform
|
solomon asch
|
|
|
social psychologist who researched obediencey to authority
|
stanley milgram
|
|
|
tendency to comply with orders, implied or real, from someone perceived as an authority
|
obedience
|
|
|
improved performance of tasks in the presence of others; occurs iwth simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet learned
|
social facilitation
|
