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85 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Pavlov and Behaviorism |
Pavlov's work provided the foundation for John B. Watson's theory on human behavior. Watson believed that although human behavior is biologically influenced, it is mostly made up of conditioned responses. Behaviorism: Studies behavior without references to mental processes. |
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Classical Conditioning |
Definition- A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. |
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Pavlov's Famous Experiment |
-Originated from his work in dogs and their digestive glands.
Frustration with 'psychic secretions'
The dogs would begin to salivate when a stimulus associated with food was present I.e. the food dish, the assistant who usually brought the food.
To understand why this happened, Pavlov: 1) Gave the dog the food. The salivated. 2) Produced a tone. The dog did not salivate. The time was therefore neutral-no response from dog. 3) Produced tone before giving food. Dog salivated because of food. (Repeated many times). 4) Produced tome with no food. Dog salivated. Outcome: The dog now associated the tone with food. |
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Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) |
A stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically triggers a response.
I.e. dog salivating to food in mouth (the stimulus) |
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Unconditioned Response |
Behaviour that occurs naturally due to a given stimulus.
I.e. Dog salivating because of food (stimulus). |
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS) |
An originally irrelevant stimulus that after association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCD) comes to trigger a conditioned resonse. I.e. Whistle after dog associates the sound of it with food, and dog salivates because of the sound of it. |
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Neutral Stimuli |
Neutral stimuli are those events or items that produce no response. I.e. Sound of whistle before associated with food by dog. |
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Extinction |
Diminished responding that occurs when the CS no longer signals an impending UCS.
Spontaneous Recovery- Reappearances of a weakened CR after a rest period. |
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Generalization |
Once a response has been conditioned for a stimulus, similar stimuli elicit the same response. |
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Discrimination |
Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli. |
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Higher-Order Conditioning |
Here, a neutral stimulus (NS) can become a new conditioned stimulus (CS) -All you need is to pair it with a previously conditioned stimulus. -A cranky teacher is associated with humiliation in front of the class, the student is conditioned to fear the teacher, later the classroom itself will provoke the fear response. |
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Learning |
A relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience. |
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Associative Learning |
Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and it's consequences (as in operant conditioning). |
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Classical Conditioning |
A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepared for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian conditioning. |
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Behaviorism |
The view that Psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2) |
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UCR (Unconditioned Response) |
In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally ocurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. |
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UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus) |
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically-triggers a response. |
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(CR) Conditioned Response |
In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) |
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B. F. Skinner 1904-1990 |
Never took a psychology course before enrolling in Harvard's graduate psychology course. Operant conditioning. |
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Operant Conditioning |
Definition- Type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punishment. |
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Skinner's Work |
Skinner used Edward Thorndike's Law of effect as a basis for his work.
Law of effect: Rewarded behavior is likely to recur.
Skinner developed the Operant Chamber (Skinner Box) to conduct his work in.
Skinner put pigeons or rats in his operant chamber.
Inside a box, animal had to learn to press a bar for food or water.
The first time the animal pressed the bar, it was probably an accident, but received the food.
Gradually the animal learned that the bar was the source of food.
Punishments such as electric shocks were also used. Timing is very important as after 30 seconds you will not be reinforcing the behavior. |
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Skinner and Shaping |
Skinner's work explored the conditions that foster efficient and enduring learning. He used shaping to achieve his results. Shaping- Reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal. Psychologists can use shaping to see what animals perceive as well as to help people achieve goals. |
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Reinforcement |
Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the behavior. Positive reinforcement: Innately reinforcing stimulus such as one that satisfies a biological need- think of it as adding a positive. Negative Reinforcement: A reinforcement strategy where an aversive stimulus is removed and this increases a desired behavior- think of it as taking away a negative. |
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Reinforcement Schedules |
1) Continuous reinforcement: Desired response rewarded every time it occurs.
2) Partial (intermittent) reinforcement: Responses are only sometimes reinforced and results in slower acquisition but has greater resistance to extinction. |
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Types of Partial Reinforcement |
1) Fixed-ratio schedules: Reinforced behavior after a set number of responses.
I.e. Piece work.
2) Variable- Ratio schedules: Provides reinforcer with an unpredictable number of responses.
I.e. Gambling
3) Fixed- interval schedules: Reinforces the first response after a fixed time period. Responses occur more frequently closer to the time.
I.e. Checking for the mail
4) Variable-Interval Schedules: Reinforces the first response after varied time period, produces slow, steady response.
Ex. Checking Facebook. |
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Conditioned Reinforcement |
A stimulus that gains it's reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (Secondary reinforcer). I.e. Money -Money itself is not reinforcing but what it can achieve is reinforcing. |
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Punishment |
An event that decreases the behavior that it follows. Usually by administering an undesirable consequence (positive punishment) or withdrawing a desirable one (negative punishment).
Think of it as adding something you don't like, or taking away something you do like. |
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Punishment- Should you spank your children? |
Punished behavior is not forgotten, it is only suppressed. The suppression Reinforces the punisher's behavior. The punished behavior usually reappears in a safe setting, away from the punisher's. Physical punishment may increase aggressiveness by demonstrating that aggression is a way to cope with problems. |
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C. C vs. O. C. |
Classical Conditioning- Associations are formed between stimuli. It needs respondent behavior - behavior that is an automatic response.
Operant Conditioning- Type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punishment.
I.e. When rat pushes lever, they get food. |
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Skinner |
Died believing that cognitive processes- thoughts perceptions, expectations do not have a place on psychology. |
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Applying Psychology: Token Economy |
A token economy is an operant conditioning procedure that rewards a desired behavior in order to create behavioral change. Earn tokens that can later be exchanged by privileges or treats. |
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Albert Bandura |
Canadian Born in 1925 in Northern Alberta Continues to work at Stanford U. Was president of the APA 1973. Behavioral Psychologist. |
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Learning by Observation |
Definition: Learning by observing others. Modeling: Process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. |
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Motor Neurons |
Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning and empathy. |
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Prosocial Behavior |
Positive constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior. Ex. Charity, volunteering, helping and general good behavior and deeds. |
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Television |
Television is blamed for being a bad role model for people.
This is mostly because of the amount of violence and loose morals.
How do researchers study the effects of TV?
-Researchers go to remote places without T.V, observe the children and return again once they receive TV
-These studies have huge problems with their methodology.
-Problems in population size, recruiting factors, cultural differences, socioeconomic factors, etc.
-Longitudinal studies are always problematic. |
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Is Television Bad? -Bad Parts |
TV raises the aggression levels on children (Josephson, 1987)
Women who watched violent TV as children were found to have 'punched, beaten, or choked another adult over four times the rate of other women' |
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Is television bad? -Good parts |
There is little evidence to suggest that a heavier diet of TV violence is linked to concurrent levels of antisocial behavior. In only rare and artificial circumstances that a stimulus such as television would modify one's behavior. 70% of the subjects felt that television broadens the minds of children and exposes them to new ideas and concepts and generally increases their overall knowledge. |
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Behaviourist Assumptions |
-Focus on the observable (Behavior) -All that cannot be observed is ignored. -Nearly all behavior is learned -Focus on experimentation rather than speculation -Commitment to discovery, not dogma -Parsimony (adoption of the simplest assumption in a theory) -Environmental Determinism: tabyla rasa, little importance attached to genes -Animal research can be generalized to humans |
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Biological Constraints |
Animal research can be generalized to humans -There are biological predispositions that factor into an animal's capacity for being conditioned -John Garcia challenged the idea that all associations can be learned equally well. |
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Garcia and Koelling's rats |
Method: Expose rats to a particular taste, sight or sound (CS) and later expose them to radiation or drugs that produce nausea Findings: The rats avoided the flavor even if they got sick hours after the flavoured water was consumed (Beyond the <30s interval) -The rats developed taste aversions but not sight or sound aversions (thus, not any stimulus could be a CS) |
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Natural Selection Favours |
Traits that help facilitate survival Hence the taste aversion rather than the sight aversion We most easily learn behaviors and maintain them when they reflect our biological predispositions. |
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Limiting Operant Conditioning |
We most easily learn behaviors and maintain them when they reflect our biological predispositions. Reinforcers that are naturally connected to the behaviours are more effective -Edible reinforcers shaping digging or rearing vs face washing. |
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Limiting Classical Conditioning |
All that cannot be observed is ignored. Animals can learn the predictability of an event and the more predictable the association, the more predictable the response. Associations influence attributes. |
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Cognitive Map |
Mental representation of the layout of one's environment. |
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Latent Learning |
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. |
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Intrinsic Motivation |
Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective. |
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Extrinsic Motivation |
Desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment. |
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Overjustification Effect |
Promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. -The person then sees the reward, rather than intrinsic motivation for performing the task.
-Actions are seen as externally controlled rather than internally controlled. |
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External Locus of Control |
The perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine what happens in our lives. |
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Internal Locus of Control |
The perception that you control your own fate. |
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How does this relate to behavior? |
Problem-Focused coping versus emotion-focused coping. PFC: Alleviates stress by directly dealing with the stressor (changing it or changing how we interact with it) EFC: Alleviates stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and paying attention to emotional needs. |
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Learned Helplessness |
The hopelessness and passion resignation of an animal or human when they have learned to perceive that they are unable to avoid repeated aversive events. |
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3 Types of Associative Learning |
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov and John Watson)-Learn to expect and prepare for significant events like food and pain. Operant Conditioning (B.F Skinner and Thorndike)-Learn to repeat acts that bring rewards and to avoid acts that bring unwanted results. Observational Learning (Albert Bandura)-Learn new behaviours by observing events and watching others. |
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Ethics |
Ethics in research ensure the safety of participants. Participants may be human or animals, both of which have guidelines that need to be met. Before research is done, it needs to be seen by the ethics committee before it gets the go ahead. |
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Animal Ethic Guidelines |
Ensure animals are protected, pain must be minimized and they must be well cared for. |
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Human Ethic Guidelines |
The overriding principle is that there must be no physical or psychological harm to participants. |
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Experimenter Role |
Researcher must always act in a professional manner, making sure that the best interests of participants and of society in general, are met. |
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Participant Rights |
Researchers must always maintain respect for the participants. Participants' rights include; Confidentiality, Voluntary Participation, Withdrawal Rights, Informed Consent, Deception in Research, and Debriefing. |
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Confidentiality |
This means that participants must not be identified in any way in terms of test results, their involvement in the study or any other confidential data. Data needs to be stored and disposed of using secure procedures. The means by which confidentiality is to be established and maintained should be described. |
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Withdrawal Rights |
Participants have the right to leave a study at any stage, regardless of the possible effects on the results. They also have the right to withdraw their rights after the study has been completed. This must be explained to the participants before beginning the study. |
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Withdrawal Rights |
Participants have the right to leave a study at any stage, regardless of the possible effects on the results. They also have the right to withdraw their rights after the study has been completed. This must be explained to the participants before beginning the study. |
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Informed Consent |
Participants must be given information about a study before they agree to take part. For participants who are either too young or too intellectually disabled to give their consent, their guardian must be given info before giving consent on their behalf. |
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Deception in Research |
Only permitted if results would be confounded if the participants had much information before taking part in the study. The researcher must ensure that participants do not unexpectedly suffer distress; the study must be stopped immediately if this occurs. Participants must be debriefed when the study is complete. |
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Debriefing |
Debriefing occurs after completion of study and participants are told the results and conclusions of the study.
Amy erroneous beliefs about the study are corrected, especially if there was any Deception involved.
Participants are informed of ways to help, I.e. Counselling, etc. |
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Justice |
In research that is just: -The selection of research participamts is fair. -The process of recruiting participamts is fair. -There is fair distribution of the benefits of participation in research. -There is no exploitation of participants in the conduct of research. -There is fair access to the benefits of research. |
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Significance |
Remember that we cannot prove a hypothesis to be correct but that was can demonstrate that a hypothesis is false. -How do we know when to do this? Statistical Significance -The likelihood that a result or relationship is caused by something ** |
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Hypothesis proving true or false |
Hypothesis- Young students score better than mature students. If in 5 or more of the 100 samples mature and young people score about the same or the mature students score higher than the young we reject the hypothesis as false. |
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Genetics |
Branch of Biology that deals with ** |
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Evolutionary Psychology |
A subfield that uses the principles of evolution to understand human social behavior Adaptations are not only physical, but behavioral as well. |
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Evolution: Principles of Natural Selection |
Within a species, no two are exactly alike.
Individuals differ in their suitability to their environment.
Those better suited are more likely to survive.
Reproduction perpetuates the genes of survival. The human brain consists of neural circuits that have developed to solve problems that our ancestors faced during our evolutionary history. Our minds are adaptations. Adaptations evolve to meet challenges in the environment. Reproduction is a key avenue of research and explanation as evolutionary psychology seeks to identify factors that maximized reproductive success. |
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Adaptive Behavior in Humans and Non-Humans |
Aggression effective aggressors gain and maintain access to food, water, and desirable mates These 'aggressive' behaviors increase the likelihood of survival and reproduction. |
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Criticisms of Evolutionary Psychology |
You cannot experiment and those in this field begin with the effect and work backwards to come up with an explanation. Evolutionary psychology does not take current socio-cultural factors factors into account when constructing explanations nor does it emphasize the fact that much of who we are is not hard-wired. Over emphasizes gender differences and downplays contrary evidence. |
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The Nature-Nurtire Debates |
Extreme biological position -Personality traits, physical characteristics, etc. Are all programmed or 'hard wired' Extreme environmental position -All traits and characteristics are shaped by life experience. |
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Heritability |
A statistical ** |
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Heritability Means |
50% with respect to intelligence means that genetic influence explains 50% of the observed variation among people w.r.t intelligence. ** |
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Twin-Study Method |
Comparison of pairs of identical and fraternal twins of the same sex |
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Identical Twins |
Are genetic clones-genetically identical Share DNA, but not fingerprints Have identical brain wave patterns Occur once every 254 births |
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Adoption Studies |
Comparison of twins and other siblings reared together with those separated by adoption. |
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Jim Twins |
Jim Springer and Jim Lewis Identical Twin brothers separated 37 days after birth |
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Genetic Influences |
Based on the Minnesota personality studies: -When raised together, monozygotic twins are more similar than dizygotic twins. -Twins raised apart are almost as similar to each other as those living in the same home. |
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Other studies of twins and adoptees show: |
Genetic factors account for some differences in intelligence, verbal and spatial abilities, criminality, vocational interests, and aggressiveness. There is a genetic component to psychological disorders, such as alcoholism, depression, and schizophrenia. ** |
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What percentage of the variations n personality do genetic differences account for? |
Genetic differences typically account for less than 50% of the variation in personality.
Environmental factors account for the rest of the variation. |
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The Interplay of Nature and Nurture |
Genetic and Environmental Influences are not independent. Identical twins receive more similar treatment from their parents compared to fraternal twins. People's genetic makeup influences how they are treated by others, the environments in which they live, and the way they perceive and recall the details of that environment. |
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Gender: A Great Divide? |
Gender Differences have been found in the following biological areas: Age when puberty is reached, height. weight, fat content, and amount each sweats Also women are expected to live longer than men are... (But the gap varies) |
