Psychology 101

Front 1

1879

Back 1

Wilhelm Wundt created first full-scale lab in Leipzing

Front 2

Historically, psychology was part of...

Back 2

Philosophy

Front 3

Historical psychology

Back 3

Contemplation, not experiment
Common sense, not scientific
Assumption of innate knowledge of humans

Front 4

Wundt focused on...

Back 4

Basic questions of thought and perception

Front 5

Wundt used...

Back 5

Experiments, observations, introspections

Front 6

Early psychology attempted to validate...

Back 6

Spiritual claims with scientific processes

Front 7

By the late 19th century, psychologists were...

Back 7

Studying self-deception

Front 8

Structuralism

Back 8

Used introspection to understand conscious experience
Break down experiences step by step

Front 9

Structuralism died because...

Back 9

Introspection was unreliable
Researchers found that some thoughts are automatic

Front 10

Gestalt

Back 10

Developed a mapping method
Believe in studying the whole, with components of experience
experience > all the parts

Front 11

Functionalism

Back 11

Function of consciousness/behavior in adaptation to environment
Influenced by Darwin

Front 12

Behaviorism

Back 12

Everything is learned
Look at measurable phenomenon - study behavior
All behavior can be explained by looking @ rewards/punishments

Front 13

Freud created...

Back 13

Psychoanalysis

Front 14

Psychoanalysis

Back 14

Focus on internal (subconscious) processes
Unconscious drives are the primary influence of behavior

Front 15

Unconsciousness is perceived...

Back 15

By looking at dreams/habits/slips of the tongue

Front 16

Case studies

Back 16

In-depth study of an individual
Pro: wealth of information
Con: lack of generality

Front 17

Surveys

Back 17

Concerns: sampling and wording
Influencing factors: complicated words, response range, influence of the surveyor, wording
Advantages: learn a lot quickly
Disadvantages: poor question=bias answer, poor sample=false conclusion, self-reports/lies

Front 18

Naturalistic Observation

Back 18

Advantages: unobtrusive so greater generalizability
Disadvantages: no ability to control environment & establish causality

Front 19

Participant observation

Back 19

Advantages: get information unavailable to others
Disadvantages: make your own bias or influence the interaction

Front 20

Correlations

Back 20

Advantages: easy
Disadvantages: cannot assert causality (directionally problem: cycle)

Front 21

Measure of a correlative relationship

Back 21

Valence: positive, negative, zero
Strength: strong, moderate, weak

Front 22

Pearson's range

Back 22

-1, 0, 1

Front 23

Experiment: key elements:

Back 23

Manipulation
Control
Random assignment

Front 24

Experiment

Back 24

1 independent and 1 dependent variable
Advantage: establish cause & effect
Disadvantage: cannot look at certain variables

Front 25

Quasi-variable

Back 25

False independent variable

Front 26

Standard deviation

Back 26

the average difference between each of the scores and the mean

Front 27

Good hypothesis is...

Back 27

A priori (prior to experiment)
Specific (& indicates general methods used)

Front 28

Inferential statistics shows us that...

Back 28

We can trust that our results are not due to chance

Front 29

Effect > chance means...

Back 29

Statistical significance

Front 30

Statistical significance may not indicate...

Back 30

Practical significance (real-world importance)

Front 31

Tests of significance depend on...

Back 31

Sample size

Front 32

Institutional Review Board

Back 32

Oversees research to protect participants against abuse/unethical conduct

Front 33

Informed consent exceptions, only when:

Back 33

Scientific knowledge cannot be gained without deceit
Potential knowledge outweighs the cost

Front 34

Debriefing

Back 34

Participants can be told the goal of the study
Participants must be informed of deception

Front 35

Neurons

Back 35

Provide communication structure of the brain & body

Front 36

Soma (cell body)

Back 36

Contains nucleus

Front 37

Dendrites

Back 37

Fibers that bring/receive information from other neurons

Front 38

Axon

Back 38

Large fiber that sends info from the nucleus to other neurons

Front 39

Resting potential of a neuron:

Back 39

Not being activated (negative charge)

Front 40

Action potential of a neuron:

Back 40

Electric signal sent from one end of the neuron to the other

Front 41

All-or-none rule

Back 41

Neuron is either firing or not

Front 42

Synapse

Back 42

Fluid-filled gap between axon terminal and through which info is chemically transmitted

Front 43

Synaptic vesicles

Back 43

Tiny spheres filled with neurotransmitters that burst when they reach the axon terminal

Front 44

Gila

Back 44

Control the supply of nutrients to neurons and help them move to correct positions

Front 45

Myelin

Back 45

Made by gila
Coat the axons of longer neurons and improve electrical impulse transmission

Front 46

Synaptogenesis

Back 46

Formation of synapses between neurons

Front 47

As individuals develop, synapses are...

Back 47

Pruned according to experience

Front 48

Medulla

Back 48

Breathing, blood circulation, and balance

Front 49

Pons

Back 49

Attention levels & timing of sleep/dreaming

Front 50

Midbrain

Back 50

Reflexes, movement, tracking of visual stimuli

Front 51

Cerebellum

Back 51

Control balance, movement, etc.

Front 52

Corpus callosum

Back 52

Connect the two sides of the brain

Front 53

Left hemisphere

Back 53

Speech comprehension/production
reading/writing
motion detection
mathematical calculation

Front 54

Right hemisphere

Back 54

Simple speech/writing
Tone of voice
Pattern recognition
Face perception
Artistical/musical processing

Front 55

Hypothalamus

Back 55

Regulates internal body states
Plays in: emotion, motivation, hunger, thirst, sexual motivation

Front 56

Hippocampus

Back 56

Spatial memory

Front 57

Amygdala

Back 57

Excitement, fear, and arousal

Front 58

Occipital lobe

Back 58

Visual cortex and processing

Front 59

Temporal lobe

Back 59

Processes audio information and language
Wernicke's area: long-term memories

Front 60

Pariel lobe

Back 60

Processes touch/perceptual info, and numbers
Tracks objects location/shape/orientation

Front 61

Motor cortex

Back 61

Receives sensory info from skin
Bigger sensory areas for more sensitive parts of the body

Front 62

Somasensory cortex

Back 62

Specific parts are stimulated during movement
Bigger areas of control for more precise movement

Front 63

Frontal lobe

Back 63

Processes motor function, language, & memory
Broca's area: speech production

Front 64

Prefrontal cortex

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Organizes other brain functions
Center of decision-making, planning, self control, & self awareness

Front 65

Absolute threshold

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Smallest detectable quantity of input

Front 66

Difference threshold

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Smallest quality that a stimulus must be increased/decreased to be detectable

Front 67

Webers law:

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Size of the difference threshold proportional to the intensity of the initial stimulus

Front 68

Perceptual sensitivity

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Individuals differ in their ability to detect and differences between signals

Front 69

Decision criteria

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Individuals differ in the amount of evidence needed to acknowledge detection

Front 70

Criteria determined by:

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Proportion of yes vs no

Front 71

Sensitivity determined by:

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Proportion of correct responses

Front 72

Kinesthesis

Back 72

Movement and position in space
Provides info about weight/resistance

Front 73

Vestibular sense

Back 73

Movement and position of head
Up/down and balance
Because of liquid in semicircular canals

Front 74

Skin senses

Back 74

Low-frequency vibration
High-frequency vibration
Increase in temperature
Decrease in temperature
Pain

Front 75

Odor perception based on:

Back 75

Pattern of activation

Front 76

5 tastes

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Sweet
Sour
Salty
Bitter
Umami

Front 77

Super tasters

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Have more taste receptors

Front 78

Amplitude of sound

Back 78

Amount of pressure exerted by sound on air
Determines volume

Front 79

Frequency

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# of wave crests/second
Determines pitch

Front 80

Amplitude of light

Back 80

Determines brightness

Front 81

Wavelength

Back 81

Distance between crests
Determines color

Front 82

Pupil is controlled by...

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Iris

Front 83

Lens focuses by...

Back 83

Changing shape

Front 84

Rods

Back 84

Lower-light intensity and colorless info

Front 85

Cones

Back 85

Greater light intensity and color sensations
3 types: blue, green, and red

Front 86

Laws of perceptual organization

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Similarity
Proximity
Continuity
Closure
Common region
Connectedness

Front 87

Figure-ground relationship

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We can't perceive two different backgrounds at once

Front 88

Binocular disparity

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Each eye sees a slightly different picture
More disparity = closer object

Front 89

Relative size

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The larger image appears closer

Front 90

Accommodation

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Lens must change shape to focus on far vs near objects

Front 91

Size consistency

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Perceived size doesn't change

Front 92

Brightness consistency

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Perceive objects will be the same shade in different amounts of light
Perceive brightness of objects as relative to the background

Front 93

Attention allows us to...

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Direct attention to stimuli
Ignore unwanted stimuli
Make note of partial info for processing
Allocate/regulate the flow of mental resources to perception or task preformance

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Attention

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Improves mental processing
Requires effort
Has limited resources
Can be voluntary or involuntary

Front 95

Selective attention

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Cannot focus on everything at once

Front 96

Dividing attention is possible between...

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Two automatic processes but not two non-automatic processes

Front 97

Attention can enhance focused processing but...

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At the cost of slowing information processing elsewhere

Front 98

Selective attention/hearing

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Tune out irrelevant sounds
Shift attention if we hear personally-relevant information

Front 99

Parallel processing:

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Ability to simultaneously sift properties of a stimuli
Occurs more quickly with: fewer distractions and fewer features distinguishing the target

Front 100

Perceptual Blindness:

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Inattentional - When focusing on one feature, we miss obvious stimuli
Change - failure to detect a central/obvious change in the environment

Front 101

Endocrine glands:

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Releases hormones into the bloodstream and carries them to muscles/organs

Front 102

Habituation:

Back 102

Stop attending to unchanging, unused sensory info

Front 103

Latent learning

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Learning that remains hidden until it's application is useful

Front 104

Insight

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Sudden knowledge of relationships of part of the problem, allowing for the solution to come together quickly

Front 105

Learned helplessness

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Fail to act to escape because of a history of repeated failures

Front 106

Observational learning

Back 106

Learning new behavior by watching a model

Front 107

Learning/performance distinction

Back 107

Learning can take place without actual performance of the learned behavior

Front 108

Memory:

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Active system that receives info from the senses, makes that info useable, organizes it, and retrieves that info from storage
Less accurate with a longer interval between encoding and retrieval

Front 109

Encoding:

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Set of mental operations preformed on sensory info to convert info into a usable form in the brain's storage system

Front 110

Storage:

Back 110

Holding onto information for some period of time

Front 111

Retrieval:

Back 111

Getting info that is stored into a form that can be used

Front 112

Information-processing model:

Back 112

Model of memory
Processing of info for memory stage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages
Stages: encoding, storage, retrieval

Front 113

Parallel distributed processing (PDP) model

Back 113

Model of memory
Memory processes take place at the same time over a large network of neural connections

Front 114

Levels-of-processing model:

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Model of memory
Info that is processed according to its meaning rather than characteristics will be remembered more efficiently & for a longer time

Front 115

Sensory memory:

Back 115

First stage of memory
Point at which info enters the nervous system through the sensory systems
Allows us to see the world as a seamless stream of events
Types: iconic and echoic

Front 116

Iconic memory:

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Visual sensory memory
Lasts only a fraction of a second

Front 117

Eidetic memory:

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Ability to access a visual memory for 30+ seconds

Front 118

Echoic memory:

Back 118

Brief memory of something heard
Lasts about 5-10 seconds

Front 119

Short-term memory (STM):

Back 119

Memory system
Info is held briefly while being used
Lasts under 20 seconds
Info moves to long term memory or is lost

Front 120

Selective attention:

Back 120

Ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input

Front 121

Working memory:

Back 121

Processes info in short-term memory

Front 122

Maintenance rehearsal:

Back 122

Saying info to be remembered over and over again to keep in in short-term memory

Front 123

Long-term memory (LTM)

Back 123

System of memory
All info is placed to be kept permanently (more/less)

Front 124

Elaborative rehearsal:

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Method of transferring info from STM to LTM by making it meaningful

Front 125

Procedural (non-declarative) memory

Back 125

Type of LTM
Memory for: skills/procedures/habits/etc
Not conscious, but are implied b/c of effect on conscious behavior

Front 126

Anterograde amnesia:

Back 126

Loss of memory from the point of injury forward
Inability to form new long-term memories

Front 127

Implicit memory:

Back 127

Info not deliberately recalled
Ex: procedural memory

Front 128

Semantic memory:

Back 128

Type of explicit memory
General knowledge

Front 129

Episodic memory:

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Type of explicit memory
Personal info

Front 130

Declarative memory:

Back 130

Type of LTM
Info that is conscious and known

Front 131

Explicit memory:

Back 131

Info is consciously recalled

Front 132

Semantic network model:

Back 132

Model of memory
Info is stored in brain in a connected fashion, with related concepts sorted physically closer to each other

Front 133

Retrieval cue:

Back 133

Stimulus for remembering

Front 134

Encoding specificity:

Back 134

Memory of info is improved if related info available when the memory is first formed is also available when the memory is being retrieved

Front 135

Recall:

Back 135

Type of memory retrieval
Info must be 'pulled' from memory with few external cues

Front 136

Recognition:

Back 136

Ability to match a piece of info/stimulus to a stored fact/image

Front 137

Serial position affect:

Back 137

Info at beginning/ending to be remembered more accurately than info in the middle

Front 138

Primacy effect:

Back 138

Remember info at beginning more than what follows

Front 139

Recency effect:

Back 139

Tendency to remember info at ending better than at the beginning

Front 140

False positive:

Back 140

Error of recognition
Think they recognize a stimulus that's not actually in memory

Front 141

Automatic encoding:

Back 141

Certain kinds of info enter LTM with little/no efforts of encoding

Front 142

Flashbulb memories:

Back 142

Type of automatic encoding
Unexpected event has strong emotional attachment

Front 143

Constructive processing:

Back 143

Retrieval of memories in which the memories are altered/revised/influenced by newer info

Front 144

Hindsight bias:

Back 144

Through revision of older memories to include new info, falsely believing that one could have predicted the outcome

Front 145

Misinformation effect:

Back 145

Misleading info presented after an event will alter memories of the event itself

Front 146

Curve of forgetting:

Back 146

Graph showing a distinct pattern in which forgetting is very fast after an event and then tapers off

Front 147

Distributed practice:

Back 147

Spacing the study of material by including breaks between study periods

Front 148

Encoding failure:

Back 148

Failure to process info into memory

Front 149

Memory trace:

Back 149

Psychical change in the brain when a memory is formed

Front 150

Decay:

Back 150

Loss of memory due to the passage of time in which the memory isn't used

Front 151

Disuse:

Back 151

Another name for decay
Memories that aren't used will eventually decay and disappear

Front 152

Proactive interference:

Back 152

Memory problem
Older info prevents/interferes with learning/retrieval of new info

Front 153

Retroactive interference:

Back 153

Memory problem
Newer info prevents/interferes with retrieval of old info

Front 154

Thinking (cognition):

Back 154

Mental activity when a person is organizing/understanding info and communicating info to others

Front 155

Mental images:

Back 155

Mental representations of objects/events and have picture-like quality

Front 156

Concepts:

Back 156

Ideas representing class/category of objects/events/activities

Front 157

Superordinate concept:

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Most general form of a concept
Highest concept in status

Front 158

Basic level type:

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Type of concept around which other similar concepts are organized

Front 159

Subordinate concept:

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Most specific category of a concept
Lowest concept in status

Front 160

Formal concepts:

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Concept that is defined by specific rules/features

Front 161

Natural concepts:

Back 161

Concepts people form as a result of their experiences

Front 162

Prototype:

Back 162

Concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of a concept

Front 163

Problem solving:

Back 163

Process of cognition when a goal must be reached by thinking/behaving in certain ways

Front 164

Trial and error (mechanical solution):

Back 164

Problem solving method
One possible solution after another is tried until one is successful

Front 165

Algorithms:

Back 165

Specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems

Front 166

Heuristic:

Back 166

Educated guess based on prior experience that helps narrow down possible solutions
The "rule of thumb"

Front 167

Representative heuristic:

Back 167

Assumption that object sharing characteristics w/members of a group also belongs to that group

Front 168

Availability heuristic:

Back 168

Estimating frequency of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant info or think of related examples

Front 169

Means-end analysis:

Back 169

Heuristic
Difference between starting situation and the goal is determined and then steps taken to reduce the difference

Front 170

Functional fixedness:

Back 170

Block to problem solving because of thinking about objects only in their typical functions

Front 171

Mental set:

Back 171

Tendency for people to persist in using problem solving patterns that have worked in the past

Front 172

Confirmation bias:

Back 172

Tendency to search for evidence that fits one's beliefs while ignoring evidence that does not

Front 173

Creativity:

Back 173

Process of solving problems by combining ideas/behaviors in new ways

Front 174

Convergent thinking:

Back 174

Problem is seen as having only one answer and all lines of thinking eventually lead to that answer using previous knowledge/logic

Front 175

Divergent thinking:

Back 175

Person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas/possibilities based on that point

Front 176

Restorative theory:

Back 176

Sleep is necessary for healing and immune health

Front 177

Adaptive theory:

Back 177

Sleep allows us to save energy
Important for survival

Front 178

Memory consolidation theory:

Back 178

Sleep is a time to consolidate and store memories

Front 179

Skill practice theory:

Back 179

Sleep allows us to improve skills (even motor skills)

Front 180

Circadian rhythm:

Back 180

"biological/internal clock"
24-hour cycle of sleep and wakefulness
Controlled by hypothalamus

Front 181

After dark, the brain releases...

Back 181

The hormone melatonin

Front 182

Short-term consequences of sleep deprivation:

Back 182

Feeling edgy
Irritability
Difficulty concentrating

Front 183

Long-term consequences:

Back 183

Depression
Learning defects
Slow reaction times
Hallucinations
Weight gain
Reduced immunity

Front 184

Dreams are twice as likely to occur during...

Back 184

REM sleep

Front 185

REM rebound:

Back 185

Increase in amount and intensity of REM sleep

Front 186

Freud's dream protection theory:

Back 186

Ego can't control urges
Dreams stand as "wish fulfillment"
Wishes are disguised as symbols

Front 187

Challenges to Freud's theory:

Back 187

Why are most dreams negative?
Most dreams don't seem to be disguised

Front 188

Activation-synthesis theory:

Back 188

Dreams are the brains attempt to interpret the random signals produced in sleep

Front 189

Challenges to activation-synthesis theory:

Back 189

Dreams are not always bizarre

Front 190

Neurocognitive theory:

Back 190

Dreams are meaningful cognitive constructions reflecting everyday lives and concerns

Front 191

Uses of hypnosis:

Back 191

Enhance effectiveness of therapies
Reduce experience of pain
Useful in treating addictions

Front 192

Effectiveness of hypnosis may be due to...

Back 192

Expectations, and must be pared with something

Front 193

Hypnosis will not...

Back 193

Go against a person's will
Improve memory

Front 194

Non-hypnotic suggestions have ... effect as hypnotic suggestions

Back 194

The same

Front 195

Amnesia of actions while hypnotized...

Back 195

Rare
Only happens when it's expected

Front 196

Sociocognitive theory of hypnosis:

Back 196

Hypnosis is not a trance or unique state of consciousness
Expectations of hypnosis shape our response

Front 197

Dissociation theory:

Back 197

Hypnosis creates a division of consciousness

Front 198

Classical conditioning:

Back 198

Pavlovian conditioning
Respond to a previously neutral stimulus that has been pared with another stimulus that elicits an automatic response

Front 199

UCS:

Back 199

Unconditioned stimulus

Front 200

UCR:

Back 200

Unconditioned response

Front 201

CS:

Back 201

Conditioned stimulus

Front 202

CR:

Back 202

Conditioned response

Front 203

3 phases of classical conditioning:

Back 203

Acquisition: CS and UCS are paired repeatedly and the CR increases
Extinction: CS is presented without UCS and the CR fades because it was replaced by a new response
Spontaneous recovery: CR will reappear (but weaker) if CS is presented after a delay

Front 204

Stimulus generalization:

Back 204

CR is elicited by stimulus similar to the CS
The greater the similarity, the stronger the CR

Front 205

Operant conditioning:

Back 205

Elicits non-automatic behavior by providing rewards for the behavior

Front 206

Law of effect:

Back 206

Thorndike
If stimulus followed by a response and reward, then the bond between stimulus and response will be strengthened
Ex: Thorndike's cat "puzzle boxes"

Front 207

Reinforcement:

Back 207

Increases probability of a response

Front 208

Positive reinforcement:

Back 208

Giving a desired stimulus

Front 209

Negative reinforcement:

Back 209

Removing an undesired stimulus

Front 210

Punishment:

Back 210

Decreases the probability of a response

Front 211

Positive punishment:

Back 211

Giving an undesired stimulus

Front 212

Negative punishment:

Back 212

Removing a desired stimulus

Front 213

Continuous reinforcement:

Back 213

Behavior reinforced every time it occurs
Conditioning occurs/dies quickly

Front 214

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement:

Back 214

Behavior only reinforced some of the time
Conditioning is slower and more resistant to extinction

Front 215

Ratio schedule of reinforcement:

Back 215

Reinforcement based on the number of responses

Front 216

Interval schedule of reinforcement:

Back 216

Reinforcement based on amount of time elapsed since last reinforcement

Front 217

Fixed ratio reinforcement:

Back 217

Reinforcement after # responses

Front 218

Fixed interval reinforcement:

Back 218

Reinforcement after # amount of time with at least one response during that time

Front 219

Variable ratio reinforcement:

Back 219

Reinforcement after an average of # responses

Front 220

Variable interval reinforcement:

Back 220

Reinforcement after an average of # amount of time with at least one response during that time

Front 221

"radical behaviorism"

Back 221

Skinner
All behavior/thinking/emotion are governed by conditioning

Front 222

S-O-R psychology:

Back 222

Stimulus-organism-response psychology
Link between stimulus and response depends on organism's interpretation of events

Front 223

Reinforcement isn't necessary for...

Back 223

Learning

Front 224

Span:

Back 224

Amount of info the memory system can hold

Front 225

Duration:

Back 225

How long the memory system can hold information

Front 226

Reasons for short term memory loss:

Back 226

Decay
Interference

Front 227

Interference:

Back 227

Memories compete with/override each other

Front 228

Digit span:

Back 228

The number of numbers one can recall in order
Most are 7 +/- 2

Front 229

Chunking:

Back 229

Organize material into meaningful groups
Reduces memory requirements
Use to process complex info

Front 230

The primacy and recency effects are due to...

Back 230

The different memory systems (short vs. long)

Front 231

Semantic and episodic memory may be stored and processed...

Back 231

In different brain regions

Front 232

Retrograde amnesia:

Back 232

Person can't recall info learned before accident
Lose info learned during min/hours before accident
Often caused by a concussion

Front 233

Implanting memories are easier when...

Back 233

Events are plausible (but impossible ones can be as well)
Family members are plausible and "in on it"

Front 234

Errors during encoding/storage/retrieval of memory make for...

Back 234

Erroneous testimony

Front 235

Longer exposure to the stimulus results in...

Back 235

Better memory for that stimulus

Front 236

Detail salience:

Back 236

Obvious/important factors of a situation are more likely to be recalled

Front 237

Time/speed/distance tend to be...

Back 237

Inaccurately reported

Front 238

Expectations effect how we...

Back 238

Perceive/recall an incident

Front 239

Guesses can become...

Back 239

Part of the original memory

Front 240

Context-Dependent recall:

Back 240

More likely to recall info accurately in the same place they learned it

Front 241

State-Dependent recall:

Back 241

Memories are retrieved better in the same state it was learnt

Front 242

Mood-Dependent recall:

Back 242

Better recalling sad memories when sad, and happy memories when happy

Front 243

Reasoning:

Back 243

Process of figuring out the implications of beliefs

Front 244

Utility theory:

Back 244

Economic-based theory of decision-making
Emphasizes: possible outcomes and risks of a decision

Front 245

Framing effects:

Back 245

The way decisions and options are phrased influence decisions

Front 246

Loss aversion:

Back 246

Take risks to avoid loss
Avoid risks when attempting to gain

Front 247

Affective forecasting:

Back 247

Predicting one's emotional response to upcoming events
Tend to overestimate response to negative events

Front 248

People are less able to make a decision when they have ... choices.

Back 248

More

Front 249

Automaticity:

Back 249

Ability to do a task without paying attention to it

Front 250

Functional fixedness:

Back 250

Difficulty thinking of uncommon uses for objects

Front 251

Sleep Stages:

Back 251

Non-REM 1: light sleep
Non-REM 2: sleep spindles
Non-REM 3/4: delta waves
REM sleep

Front 252

Delta waves:

Back 252

Long, slow waves that indicate the deepest stage of sleep

Front 253

Language:

Back 253

System of combining symbols so that unlimited meaningful statements can be made to communicate

Front 254

Grammar:

Back 254

System of rules governing the structure/use of a language

Front 255

Syntax:

Back 255

Linguistic rules for constructing sentences

Front 256

Morphemes:

Back 256

Smallest units of meaning within a language
Can also convey info about semantics

Front 257

Semantics:

Back 257

Rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences

Front 258

Phonemes:

Back 258

Basic units of sound in a language
100 across all languages
Infants can distinguish all

Front 259

Pragmatics:

Back 259

Aspects of language involving the practical ways of communicating
Social "niceties" of language

Front 260

Linguistic relativity hypothesis:

Back 260

Theory of language
Thought processes/concepts are controlled by language

Front 261

Cognitive universalism:

Back 261

Theory of language
Concepts are universal and influence the development of language

Front 262

Intelligence:

Back 262

Ability to learn from one's experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources efficiently to solve problems

Front 263

G-factor:

Back 263

Ability to reason and solve problems
General intelligence

Front 264

S-factor:

Back 264

Ability to excel in a certain area
Specific intelligence

Front 265

Triarchic theory:

Back 265

Intelligence theory
Sternberg's theory
3 kinds of intelligence: analytical, creative, practical

Front 266

Analytical intelligence:

Back 266

Ability to analyze to solve problems
Triarchic theory

Front 267

Creative intelligence:

Back 267

Ability to deal with new concepts and come up with new ways of solving problems
Triarchic theory

Front 268

Practical intelligence:

Back 268

Ability to use info to get along in life and be successful
Triarchic theory

Front 269

Intelligence quotient (IQ):

Back 269

Number representing the measure of intelligence, resulting from a division of one's mental age by one's chronological age and then x 100

Front 270

Reliability:

Back 270

Tendency of a test to make the same scores again and again when given to the same people

Front 271

Validity:

Back 271

Degree to which a test actually measures what it is supposed to measure

Front 272

Deviation IQ scores:

Back 272

Type of intelligence that assumes IQ is normally distributed abound mean 100 with standard deviation 15

Front 273

Intellectual disability:

Back 273

Person's behavior/cognitive skills exist at an earlier developmental stage that those of other at the same chronological age
Developmentally delayed

Front 274

Gifted:

Back 274

2% of the population on the upper end of the normal curve with a typical IQ of 130+

Front 275

Emotional intelligence:

Back 275

Awareness and ability to manage one's own emotions, plus the ability to be self-motivated, able to sympathize, and socially skilled

Front 276

Examples of morphemes:

Back 276

A
Waterfall
-ed
-s
-able
Etc...

Front 277

'recreated' is how many morphemes?

Back 277

3

Front 278

Extralinguistic info:

Back 278

Info outside the words themselves
Ex: tone, facial expression, sarcasm, context

Front 279

Definitional theory:

Back 279

Theory of word meaning
Mentally represent words based on features
Criticism: not all words have clear definitional features and some words are better examples of categories than others

Front 280

Prototype theory:

Back 280

Theory of word meaning
Words mentally represented based on resemblance and typicality
"Folk theories" of meaning: understand the word beyond definitions and prototypes

Front 281

Behaviorist perspective:

Back 281

Language is learned from environment
Children imitate and are reinforced
Criticism: improper grammar is reinforced, and children produce words they have never heard

Front 282

Nativist perspective:

Back 282

Language-learning is innate
Must be a "language organ" in the brain that is devoted to learning language and able to organize certain grammatical markers
Criticism: grammars are diverse and no evidence for specific "language organ"

Front 283

It is easier to ... a language than to ... it.

Back 283

Understand
Produce

Front 284

One word stage:

Back 284

12-18 months
Use single words to convey info

Front 285

Two-word phrases:

Back 285

Age 2
Combine words and usually follow basic grammar rules

Front 286

Intelligence based on sensory:

Back 286

Better sensory capacity should lead to more knowledge
Criticism: sensory capacities are weakly correlated with each other and don't correlate with processing ability

Front 287

Binet and Simon's French intelligence test tested by:

Back 287

Drawing pictures
Filling in blanks in a sentence
Determining similarity between two objects
Creating a sentence based on three words

Front 288

American experts deemed intelligence as the ability to:

Back 288

Reason abstractly
Learn to adapt to a novel environment circumstances
Acquire knowledge
Benefit from experience

Front 289

Not all learning requires...

Back 289

Conditioning

Front 290

Fluid intelligence:

Back 290

Ability to learn new ways to solve problems
Decrease with age
Correlates with g intelligence

Front 291

Crystalized intelligence:

Back 291

Accumulated knowledge of the world
Increase with age
Correlates with openness (personality variable)

Front 292

Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences:

Back 292

8 types
Including: linguistic, spatial, musical, interpersonal, etc

Front 293

Criticism for multiple intelligence models:

Back 293

No good measure for different intelligence types
Not clear that each is distinct from the other, or from g

Front 294

We may have individual strengths but there is no solid evidence for...

Back 294

Multiple intelligences

Front 295

Boring's definition of intelligence:

Back 295

Intelligence is whatever intelligence tests measure

Front 296

Terman established norms in his IQ test, which allowed for...

Back 296

Comparisons across people

Front 297

IQ performance levels off at 16 because...

Back 297

Chronological age increases, but mental age remains constant

Front 298

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS):

Back 298

Most commonly used adult IQ test
5 major scores: overall IQ, verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, processing speed
With 15 subsets

Front 299

IQ tests are ... biased, and fair IQ tests test ... abilities.

Back 299

Culturally
Nonverbal

Front 300

IQ is stable in...

Back 300

Adults, but not in young children

Front 301

IQ positively correlates with:

Back 301

School grades
Job performance

Front 302

IQ negatively correlates with:

Back 302

Poverty
Criminality

Front 303

Twin studies indicate ...% of IQ is genetics-based.

Back 303

40-70

Front 304

Non-genetic influences of IQ:

Back 304

Nutrition
Environmental toxins
Breast feeding
Schooling

Front 305

Personality:

Back 305

Unique and relatively stable ways that people think/feel/behave

Front 306

Character:

Back 306

Value judgements of a person's moral/ethical behavior

Front 307

Temperament:

Back 307

Enduring characteristics each person is born with

Front 308

Unconscious mind:

Back 308

Level of the mind where thoughts/feelings/memories/etc that are not easily/voluntarily brought into consciousness are

Front 309

id:

Back 309

Part of the personality present at birth and completely unconscious
Functions on pleasure principle

Front 310

Pleasure principle:

Back 310

Immediate satisfaction of needs regardless of consequences

Front 311

Ego:

Back 311

Part of the personality that develops out of needing to deal with reality
Mostly conscious, rational, and logical
Functions by the reality principle

Front 312

Reality principle:

Back 312

Satisfaction of demands of the id only without negative consequences

Front 313

Superego:

Back 313

Part of the personality that is the moral center

Front 314

Conscience:

Back 314

Part of the superego that produces guilt, depending on the acceptability of the behavior

Front 315

Psychological defense mechanisms:

Back 315

Unconscious distortions of a person's perception of reality that reduce stress/anxiety

Front 316

Denial:

Back 316

Psychological defense mechanism
Person refuses to acknowledge/recognize a threatening situation

Front 317

Repression:

Back 317

Psychological defense mechanism
Person refuses to consciously remember unacceptable event, pushing it into the unconscious

Front 318

Rationalization:

Back 318

Psychological defense mechanism
Person invents acceptable excuse for unacceptable behavior

Front 319

Projection:

Back 319

Psychological defense mechanism
Unacceptable feelings are seen as coming from someone else, usually the target of the feelings

Front 320

Reaction formation:

Back 320

Psychological defense mechanism
Person forms an opposite reaction to the way he feels to keep true feelings hidden

Front 321

Displacement:

Back 321

Psychological defense mechanism
Redirecting feelings from one threatening target to a less threatening one

Front 322

Regression:

Back 322

Psychological defense mechanism
Person falls back on childlike patterns of responding in reaction to stressful situations

Front 323

Identification:

Back 323

Psychological defense mechanism
Person tires to become like someone else to deal with anxiety

Front 324

Compensation (substitution):

Back 324

Psychological defense mechanism
Person makes up for inferiorities by becoming superior in another area

Front 325

Sublimation:

Back 325

Psychological defense mechanism
Channeling socially unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable behavior

Front 326

Fixation:

Back 326

Disorder where the person doesn't fully resolve the conflict in a psychosexual stage, resulting in personality traits/behavior associated with that earlier stage

Front 327

Psychosexual stages:

Back 327

5 stages of personality development tied to the sexual development of a child
Oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stage

Front 328

Oral stage:

Back 328

Psychosexual stage
1-1.5 years
Mouth is the erogenous zone and weaning the primary conflict
If unresolved: overeating, excessive drinking, smoking

Front 329

Anal stage:

Back 329

Psychosexual stage
1-1.5 years
Anus is the erogenous zone and toilet training the primary conflict
If unresolved: neatness and stubbornness

Front 330

Phallic stage:

Back 330

Psychosexual stage
3-6 years
Child discovers sexual feelings

Front 331

Oedipus/Electra complex:

Back 331

Occurs in the phallic stage
Child develops sexual attraction to opposite-sex parent and jealousy of same-sex parent
Males = Oedipus complex
Females = Electra complex

Front 332

Latency:

Back 332

Psychosexual stage
Sexual feelings of the child are repressed while the child develops in other ways

Front 333

Psychoanalysis:

Back 333

Freud's term for the theory of personality and therapy based on it

Front 334

Genital stage:

Back 334

Psychosexual stage
Sexual behavior

Front 335

Noe-Freudians:

Back 335

Followers of Freud who developed their own competing psychodynamic theories

Front 336

Personal unconsciousness:

Back 336

Jung's name for the unconscious mind described by Freud

Front 337

Collective unconscious:

Back 337

Jung's name for the memories shared by all members of the human species

Front 338

Archetypes:

Back 338

Jung's collective, universal human memories

Front 339

Basic anxiety:

Back 339

Anxiety created when a child is born into the bigger and more powerful world of other children/adults

Front 340

Neurotic personalities:

Back 340

Horney's theory
Personalities typified by maladaptive ways of dealing with relationships: moving toward/against/away from other people

Front 341

Habits:

Back 341

In behaviorism, sets of well-learned responses that have become automatic

Front 342

Social cognitive learning theorists:

Back 342

Emphasize the importance of the influence of other people's behavior and one's own expectancies of learning

Front 343

Social cognitive view:

Back 343

Learning theory
Includes cognitive processes such as anticipating, judging, memory, imitation of models

Front 344

Reciprocal determinism:

Back 344

Bandura's explanation of how factors of the environment/personal characteristics/behavior can interact to determine future behavior

Front 345

Self-efficacy:

Back 345

Individual's expectancy of how effective his efforts to accomplish a goal will be in any particular circumstance

Front 346

Locus of control:

Back 346

Tendency for people to assume they have do/don't control over events and consequences in their lives

Front 347

Expectancy:

Back 347

Person's subjective feeling that a particular behavior will lead to a reinforcing consequence

Front 348

Humanistic perspective:

Back 348

"3rd force" in psychology that focuses on the aspects of personality that make people human
Ex: subjective feelings, freedom of choice

Front 349

Self-actualizing tendency:

Back 349

Striving to fulfill one's innate capacities/capabilities

Front 350

Self-concept:

Back 350

Image of oneself that develops from interactions with important people in one's life

Front 351

Self:

Back 351

Individual's awareness of own personal characteristics and level of functioning

Front 352

Real self:

Back 352

One's perception of actual characteristics/traits/abilities

Front 353

Ideal self:

Back 353

One's perception of whom one should be or want to be

Front 354

Positive regard:

Back 354

Love and respect that come from significant others in one's life

Front 355

Unconditional positive regard:

Back 355

Positive regard given without conditions attached

Front 356

Conditional positive regard:

Back 356

Positive regard given only when the person is doing what the provider wants

Front 357

Fully functioning person:

Back 357

Person who is in touch with and trusting of the deepest urges/feelings

Front 358

Trait:

Back 358

Particular cognitive behavioral predisposition
Consistent, enduring way of thinking/feeling/behaving
Ex: proneness to anxiety, extraversion, aggression, traditionalism, impulse control

Front 359

Twin studies about personalities reveal that...

Back 359

Personality is partly, but not entirely, genetic

Front 360

3 principles of personality:

Back 360

All psychological events have a cause (deterministic)
All behaviors have meaning
We generally do not know why we act (caused by unconscious)

Front 361

Anxiety is caused by...

Back 361

The ego in response to threats

Front 362

Anxiety is minimized by...

Back 362

Defense mechanisms, which is necessary for our psychological health

Front 363

Pathology:

Back 363

Overuse of 1 or 2 defense mechanisms

Front 364

Criticism of Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality:

Back 364

Unfalsifiability (can't be disproven)
Failed predictions
Lack of generalizability (Freud's patients were all from the same background)

Front 365

Trait theories:

Back 365

Try to describe the characteristics that make up human personality to predict future behavior

Front 366

Surface traits:

Back 366

Aspects of personality easily seen by others in the outdated actions of a person

Front 367

Source traits:

Back 367

More basic traits that underlie surface traits, forming the core of the personality

Front 368

Introversion:

Back 368

Dimension of personality
Tendency to withdraw from excessive stimulation

Front 369

Five-factor model (big five):

Back 369

Model of personality traits that describes five basic trait dimensions
Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism {OCEAN}

Front 370

Openness:

Back 370

One of the big five
Willingness to try new things/have new experiences
Intellectually curious and unconventional

Front 371

Conscientiousness:

Back 371

One of the big five
Care a person gives to organization/thoughtfulness of others
Careful and responsible

Front 372

Extraversion:

Back 372

One of the big five
One's need to be with other people
Lively and sociable

Front 373

Extraverts:

Back 373

People who are outgoing and sociable

Front 374

Introverts:

Back 374

People who prefer solitude and dislike being the center of attention

Front 375

Agreeableness:

Back 375

One of the big five
Emotional style of a person
Ranges from friendly/like-able to grumpy/unpleasant
Sociable and easy-going

Front 376

Neuroticism:

Back 376

One of the big five
Degree of emotional instability/stability
Tense and moody

Front 377

Trait-situation interaction:

Back 377

Assumption that the particular circumstance of a situation will influence the way a trait is expressed

Front 378

Behavioral genetics:

Back 378

Field of study devoted to discovering the genetic bases for personality characteristics

Front 379

Interview:

Back 379

Method of personality assessment
Professional asks client a question and allows them to answer in a unstructured/structured fashion

Front 380

Halo effect:

Back 380

Tendency of interviewer to allow positive characteristics of a client to influence the assessments of the client's behavior/statements

Front 381

Projective tests:

Back 381

Method of personality assessment
Present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind

Front 382

Rorschach inkblot test:

Back 382

Projective test
Uses 10 inkblots as the ambiguous stimuli

Front 383

Thematic apperception test (TAT):

Back 383

Projective test
Uses 20 pictures of people in ambitious situations as the visual stimuli

Front 384

Subjective:

Back 384

Concepts/impressions that are only valid within a particular person's perception
May be influenced by biases/prejudice/personal experiences

Front 385

Direct observation

Back 385

Method of personality assessment
Professional observes the client engaged in ordinary behavior in a clinical or natural setting

Front 386

Rating scale:

Back 386

Method of personality assessment
Numerical value is assigned to specific behavior listed in a scale

Front 387

Frequency count:

Back 387

Method of personality assessment
Frequency of a particular behavior is counted

Front 388

Personality inventory:

Back 388

Test that consists of statements that require a specific, standardized response from the person taking the test

Front 389

Behavioral activation system (BAS)

Back 389

Seeks reward
Allows us to seek food, sex, and other resources
Energetic and impulsive

Front 390

Behavioral inhibition system (BIS)

Back 390

Responds to risk, punishment, and unfamiliar settings
Inhibited and anxious
Determines "fight/flight" response in reaction to threats

Front 391

3 traits of personality:

Back 391

Extraversion - outgoingness
Neuroticism - emotional instability
Psychoticism - aggressiveness, creativity, impulsiveness, low empathy - not actually a reliable personality trait

Front 392

Sensation seeking:

Back 392

Tendency to seek out new and exciting stimuli
High: extreme sports and spicy food
Low: dislike risk and adventure

Front 393

Self-monitoring:

Back 393

Extent to which our inner/outer selves differ and the way we act differently in different situations

Front 394

Collectivist cultures:

Back 394

Needs/goals of the group paramount to the individual
"self" considered part of the group

Front 395

Individualist cultures:

Back 395

Needs/rights of the individual paramount to the group
Independence and free-choice are valued

Front 396

Face validity:

Back 396

Extent to which respondents can tell what items are measuring

Front 397

Advantages/disadvantages of low face validity:

Back 397

Advantage: may measure non-conscious personality dimensions, and difficult to fake answers
Disadvantage: don't know why groups answer differently

Front 398

Projective tests:

Back 398

People project their personality onto an ambiguous stimuli
Advantage: measure unconscious processes
Disadvantage: lack reliability and validity

Front 399

Rorschach inkblot test:

Back 399

Advantage: focus on color linked to emotionality, focus on details linked to OCD tendencies
Disadvantage: doesn't diagnose most disorders, predict criminal behavior, and is harder/longer than other measures at predicting schizophrenia and bipolar disorder

Front 400

Orgasm:

Back 400

Series of rhythmic contractions of the muscles of the vaginal walls/penis
Third and shortest phase of sexual response

Front 401

Resolution:

Back 401

Final phase of the sexual response in which the body is returned to a normal state
Feeling of relaxation and well-being

Front 402

Refractory period:

Back 402

Time period in males just after orgasm
Male cannot become aroused or achieve erection

Front 403

Sexual orientation:

Back 403

Person's sexual attraction for members of the opposite/same sex

Front 404

Heterosexual:

Back 404

Person attracted to the opposite sex

Front 405

Homosexual:

Back 405

Person attracted to the same sex

Front 406

Bisexual:

Back 406

Person attracted to both men and women

Front 407

Testosterone enhances...

Back 407

Sexual interest in the short term

Front 408

Individuals with high serotonin report...

Back 408

Low sexual desire

Front 409

Excitement phase:

Back 409

First phase of sexual response
Penile erection in men
Vaginal swelling and lubrication in women

Front 410

The following reduce sexual desire:

Back 410

Stress
Fatigue
Illness
Lack of attraction
Anxiety

Front 411

Plateau phase:

Back 411

Second phase of sexual response
Tension and pleasure builds

Front 412

In a partner, ... is more important to men, and men prefer...

Back 412

Physical appearance
Younger women

Front 413

In a partner, ... is more important to women, and women prefer...

Back 413

Social and financial status
Older men

Front 414

Twin studies suggest homosexuality is...

Back 414

Partly genetic, but not completely

Front 415

Motivation:

Back 415

Process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so physical/psychological needs are met

Front 416

Extrinsic motivation:

Back 416

Type of motivation
Person preforms an action because it leads to an outcome that is external to the person

Front 417

Intrinsic motivation:

Back 417

Type of motivation
Person preforms an action because the act itself is rewarding in some internal manner

Front 418

Instincts:

Back 418

Biologically determined innate patterns of behavior in both people/animals

Front 419

Instinct approach:

Back 419

Approach to motivation that assumes people are governed by instincts similar to animals

Front 420

Need:

Back 420

Requirement of some material (food/water) essential for survival

Front 421

Drive:

Back 421

Psychological tension and physical arousal arising when there is a need that motivates the organism to act to fulfill the need and reduce tension

Front 422

Drive-reduction theory:

Back 422

Approach to motivation that assumes behavior rises from psychological/biological needs causing internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and reduce tension/arousal

Front 423

Primary drives:

Back 423

Drives that involve needs of the body (hunger/thirst)

Front 424

Acquired (secondary) drives:

Back 424

Drives that are learned through experience/conditioning (need for money/social approval)

Front 425

Homeostasis:

Back 425

Tendency of the body to maintain a steady state

Front 426

Need for achievement (nAch):

Back 426

Need that involves a strong desire to succeed in attaining both realistic and challenging goals

Front 427

Need for affiliation (nAff)

Back 427

Need for friendly social interactions and relationships with others

Front 428

Need for power (nPow):

Back 428

Need to have control/influence over others

Front 429

Stimulus motive:

Back 429

Motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation
Ex: curiosity

Front 430

Arousal theory:

Back 430

Theory of motivation
People are said to have an optimal level of tension they seek to maintain by increasing/decreasing stimulation

Front 431

Yerkes-Dodson law:

Back 431

Law stating performance is related to arousal
Moderate (vs high/low) levels of arousal lead to better performance
Varies with the difficulty of the task

Front 432

Sensation seeker:

Back 432

Someone who needs more arousal than the average person

Front 433

Incentives:

Back 433

Things that attract/lure people into action

Front 434

Incentive approaches:

Back 434

Theories of motivation
Behavior explained as a response to external stimulus and its rewarding properities

Front 435

Expectancy-value theories:

Back 435

Incentive theories
Actions of humans can't be predicted/understood without understanding the beliefs/values/importance a person attaches to those beliefs/values at any given moment in time

Front 436

Self-actualization:

Back 436

Maslow
Point seldom reached at which people sufficiently satisfied lower needs and achieved full human potential

Front 437

Peak experience:

Back 437

Maslow
Times in a persons life when self-actualization is temporarily achieved

Front 438

Self-determination theory (SDT):

Back 438

Theory of motivation
Social context of an action has an effect on the type of motivation existing for the action

Front 439

Approach:

Back 439

Predisposition towards stimuli
Achievement motivation: desire for success

Front 440

Avoidance:

Back 440

Predisposition away from stimuli
Achievement motivation: fear of failure

Front 441

As we near a goal, approach and avoidance...

Back 441

Increase

Front 442

... increases faster than...

Back 442

Avoidance
Approach

Front 443

Critique of drive theories:

Back 443

Satisfying drives does not always reduce them

Front 444

Intrinsic motivation:

Back 444

Motivation based on internal goals

Front 445

Extrinsic motivation:

Back 445

Motivation based on external goals

Front 446

... rewards may... intrinsic motivation

Back 446

Extrinsic
Undermine

Front 447

Extrinsic rewards undermine intrinsic motivation because:

Back 447

We assume we weren't interested in doing it for its own sake
We stop performing because we expected a reward

Front 448

People that seek success but don't fear failure...

Back 448

Seek more challenges
Persist more and work harder with obstacles

Front 449

Achievement motivation predicts:

Back 449

Academic performance
Artistic success
Athletic success

Front 450

Emotion:

Back 450

"feeling" aspect of consciousness, characterized by certain psychical arousal/behavior revealing emotion to the ouside world/inner awareness of feelings

Front 451

Display rules:

Back 451

Learned ways of controlling displays of emotion in social settings
Different in different cultures

Front 452

James-Lange theory of emotion:

Back 452

We determine our emotion based on our actions
Not really supported by research

Front 453

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion:

Back 453

Psychological reaction and the emotion are assumed to occur at the same time

Front 454

Cognitive arousal theory:

Back 454

Theory of emotion
Both physical arousal and the labeling of that arousal based on cues from the environment must occur before the emotion is experienced

Front 455

Facial feedback hypothesis:

Back 455

Theory of emotion
We feel emotions that correspond to our facial expression

Front 456

Cognitive-meditational theory:

Back 456

Theory of emotion
Stimulus must be appraised by a person to result in a physical response and emotional reaction

Front 457

Desecrate emotion theory:

Back 457

Specific emotions are biologically programed with accompanying behaviors/facial expressions
Aid survival

Front 458

Secondary emotions:

Back 458

Emotions made of a combination of primary emotions

Front 459

7 primary emotions:

Back 459

Happiness
Sadness
Surprise
Anger
Disgust
Fear
Contempt

Front 460

Cognitive theories of emotion:

Back 460

Emotions are produced by thoughts
No two emotions are the same

Front 461

Somatic marker theory of emotion:

Back 461

Use psychological responses to gauge how we should act

Front 462

Two-factor theory of emotion:

Back 462

Emotions are produced by two psychological events
Emotional event produces arousal and we seek to determine the source of the arousal -> our explanation determines the emotion

Front 463

Discrete vs cognitive emotions theories:

Back 463

Discrete emotions theory: biologically coded
Cognitive emotions theory: affected by interpretation of events

Front 464

Social psychology:

Back 464

Scientific study of how a person's thoughts/feelings/behavior are influenced by real/imagined/implied presence of others

Front 465

Social influence:

Back 465

Real/implied presence of others can directly/indirectly influence thoughts/feelings/behavior of an individual

Front 466

Conformity:

Back 466

Changing one's own behavior to match that of other people

Front 467

Groupthink:

Back 467

When people place more importance on maintaining group cohesiveness than assessing the facts of the problem facing the group

Front 468

Consumer psychology:

Back 468

Studies the habits of consumers in the marketplace

Front 469

Compliance:

Back 469

Changing one's behavior because of other people directing/asking for the change

Front 470

Foot-in-the-door technique:

Back 470

Asking for a small commitment, and after compliance asking for a bigger commitment

Front 471

Door-in-the-face technique:

Back 471

Asking for a large commitment, being refused, and asking for a smaller commitment

Front 472

Norm of reciprocity:

Back 472

Assumption that if someone does something for a person, that person should do something for the other in return

Front 473

Lowball technique:

Back 473

Getting a commitment from a person and then raising the cost of that commitment

Front 474

That's-not-all technique:

Back 474

Persuader makes an offer and then adds something extra to make the offer look better before the target person can make a decision

Front 475

Obedience:

Back 475

Changing one's behavior at the command of an authority figure

Front 476

Group polarization:

Back 476

Tendency for members involved in a group discussion to take more extreme positions and suggest riskier actions when compared to individuals who haven't participated in group discussion

Front 477

Social facilitation:

Back 477

Tendency for the presence of others to have a positive impact on the performance of an easy task

Front 478

Social impairment:

Back 478

Tendency for the presence of others to have a negative impact on the performance of a difficult task

Front 479

Social loafing:

Back 479

Tendency for people to put less effort into a simple task when working with others on that task

Front 480

Asch studies:

Back 480

Ss asked a question with an obvious right answer and had confederates answer wrongly
37% of Ss went along with the wrong answer

Front 481

Confederate:

Back 481

Undercover agent of the researcher

Front 482

Conformity is highest between a group size of...

Back 482

5-7 confederates

Front 483

Women are... to conform as men are

Back 483

Just as likely

Front 484

Milgram experiment summary:

Back 484

Ss were paid regardless of what happened at the lab, told the study was about memory. "learner" was a confederate and was strapped to a shock chair. Ss was to deliver an electric shock for each wrong answer, up to 'XXX---'. 'learner' had varied responses: complaining of heart pain, pounding, screaming, and then being silent.

Front 485

Result of Milgram experiment:

Back 485

65% went to the last switch
Ss showed signs of extreme anger and distress

Front 486

Interpersonal attraction:

Back 486

Liking or desiring a relationship with another person

Front 487

Proximity:

Back 487

Physical or geographical nearness

Front 488

Reciprocity of liking:

Back 488

People's tendency to like others who like them in return

Front 489

Romantic love:

Back 489

Type of love
Made of intimacy and passion

Front 490

Companionate love:

Back 490

Type of love
Made of intimacy and commitment

Front 491

Aggression:

Back 491

Behavior intended to hurt/destroy another person

Front 492

Social role:

Back 492

Pattern of behavior that is expected of a person who is in a particular social position

Front 493

Prosocial behavior:

Back 493

Socially desirable behavior that benefits others

Front 494

Altruism:

Back 494

Prosocial behavior
Done with no expectation of remand and may involve risk of harm to oneself

Front 495

Bystander effect:

Back 495

Effect that the presence of others has on the decision to help
Help becomes less likely as the number of bystanders increases

Front 496

Diffusion of responsibility:

Back 496

Occurs when a person fails to take responsibility for action/inaction because of the presence of others who supposedly share the responsibility

Front 497

People are less likely to help when...

Back 497

In groups

Front 498

Pluralistic ignorance:

Back 498

Error of assuming that no one in a group perceives things as we do

Front 499

Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment:

Back 499

24 college aged men paid and randomly assigned to be prisoners or guards. Within days, the guards became controlling/cruel, and prisoners became docile. 5 prisoners were released when they became depressed and stopped eating.
The experiment ended after 6 days, instead of the planned 2 weeks

Front 500

Attitude:

Back 500

Tendency to respond positively/negatively toward a certain person, object, idea, or situation

Front 501

Persuasion:

Back 501

Person tries to change the belief/opinion/action of another through argument/pleading/explanation

Front 502

Elaboration likelihood model:

Back 502

Model of persuasion
Future actions of those who elaborate on a persuasive message are more predictable than those who don't

Front 503

Central-route processing:

Back 503

Type of info processing
Attending to the content of a message itself

Front 504

Peripheral-route processing:

Back 504

Type of info processing
Attending to factors not involved in the message, such as appearance of the source, length of the message, and other noncontent factors

Front 505

Cognitive dissonance:

Back 505

Sense of discomfort/distress when a person's behavior doesn't match their attitude

Front 506

Impression formation:

Back 506

Forming of the first knowledge that a person has considering another

Front 507

Social cognition:

Back 507

Mental processes that people use to make sense of the social world around them

Front 508

Social categorization:

Back 508

Assignment of a person one just met to a category based on characteristics the new person has in common with other people experienced in the past

Front 509

Stereotype:

Back 509

Set of characteristics people believe is shared by all members of a particular social category

Front 510

Implicit personality theory:

Back 510

Sets of assumptions about how different types of people, personality traits, and actions are related to one another

Front 511

Conformity and obedience to authority are police if...

Back 511

They are not blind or unquestioning

Front 512

Social behavior is adaptive and allows for...

Back 512

Survival and reproduction

Front 513

There are negative consequences for humans who are...

Back 513

Separated from all social interactions

Front 514

The feeling of rejection activates the cingulate cortex, which also activated during feelings of...

Back 514

Physical pain

Front 515

... lowers the activation of the cingulate cortex after...

Back 515

Tylenol
Rejection

Front 516

Social comparison theory:

Back 516

Evaluate our abilities/beliefs by comparing them to others

Front 517

Attributions:

Back 517

Mental identifications of the causes of behavior

Front 518

Internal attributions:

Back 518

Behavior caused by something inside the person (personality/choice/etc)

Front 519

External attributions:

Back 519

Behavior caused by something outside the person (situation/environment/etc)

Front 520

Fundamental attribution error:

Back 520

Tendency to overestimate the impact of internal influences on behavior
Especially in western,non-collectivist cultures

Front 521

Actor-observer bias:

Back 521

More likely to explain our own behavior in terms of situational factors than we are to explain others'

Front 522

Correlation between attitudes and behaviors is...

Back 522

.38

Front 523

Attitudes are more likely to predict behavior when...

Back 523

Highly accessible

Front 524

Cognitive dissonance theory:

Back 524

Alter attitudes because we feel tense (cognitive dissonance) between different conflicting thoughts

Front 525

Prejudice:

Back 525

Negative attitude held by a person about members of a particular social group

Front 526

Discrimination:

Back 526

Treating people differently because of prejudice towards their social group

Front 527

In-groups:

Back 527

Social groups with whom a person identifies

Front 528

Out-groups:

Back 528

Social groups with whom a person does not identify

Front 529

Realistic conflict theory:

Back 529

Theory stating that prejudice and discrimination will be increased between groups that are in conflict over a limited resource

Front 530

Social cognitive theory:

Back 530

Use of cognitive processes in relation to understanding the social world

Front 531

Social identity theory:

Back 531

Formation of a person's identity within a social group is explained by social categorization/identity/comparison

Front 532

Social identity:

Back 532

Part of self-concept
Includes one's view of self as a member of a social category

Front 533

Social comparison:

Back 533

Comparison of oneself to others in ways that raise one's self-esteem

Front 534

Stereotype vulnerabitlity:

Back 534

Effect that people's awareness of stereotypes associated with their social group has on their behavior

Front 535

Self-fulfilling prophecy:

Back 535

Tendency of one's expectations to affect one's behavior in order to make the expectations more likely

Front 536

Equal status contact:

Back 536

Contact between groups in which groups have equal status

Front 537

"jigsaw classroom":

Back 537

Educational technique I which each individual is given only part of the info needed to solve a problem, causing individuals to be forced to work together to find the solution

Front 538

Studies about shooting black or white "enemies" with a gun or innocents without one, resulted...

Back 538

Participants more likely to mis-shoot black innocents than white innocents
Same for both black and white participants

Front 539

Ultimate attribution error:

Back 539

Attribute negative characteristics of groups to dispositions
Attribute positive behaviors of members in disliked groups to exceptions

Front 540

Both the ultimate attribution error and the fundamental attribution error indicate...

Back 540

We underestimate the impact of situational factors on behavior

Front 541

Prejudice is about..., discrimination is about...

Back 541

Attitudes
Behavior

Front 542

Prejudice may occur without...

Back 542

Discrimination

Front 543

When women performers could not be seen in an audition for orchestra, the results...

Back 543

Women were 50% more likely to pass

Front 544

Stereotype threat:

Back 544

Fear we may confirm to a negative group stereotype

Front 545

Performance on a test is worse when even required to...

Back 545

Indicate race beforehand

Front 546

It's adaptive to.. members of in-group, and... members of out-group

Back 546

Ally with
Distrust

Front 547

In-group bias:

Back 547

Favor individuals within one's in-group over individuals in the out-group

Front 548

Out-group homogeneity:

Back 548

Tendency to view others outside our group as similar to each other

Front 549

Blue-eye/brown-eye third grade student study:

Back 549

Blue-eyed students insulted and denied privileges (vs brown-eyed students)
Brown-eyed students became arrogant and domineering
Blue-eyed students became submissive and insecure

Front 550

Robbers cave study:

Back 550

Similar boys brought into camp in two groups, and remained completely separated. Tournament between groups organized, with attractive prizes. Within days clear in/out-groups established; conflict lead to name-calling, food and fist fights. Groups brought together in fun activities to try to eliminate conflict, but failed. When groups worked together for higher goals, they were forced to cooperate and conflict between groups dissapeared.

Front 551

5 infant reflexes:

Back 551

Grasping
Startle
Rooting
Stepping
Sucking

Front 552

Cognitive development:

Back 552

Development of thinking, problem solving, and memory

Front 553

Scheme:

Back 553

Mental concept formed through experiences with objects/events

Front 554

Sensorimotor stage:

Back 554

Piaget's first stage of cognitive development
Infant uses its senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment
Limitation: no mental representation

Front 555

Object permanence:

Back 555

Knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight
None before 8 months of age
Because of problem with means-end sequences

Front 556

Pre-operational stage:

Back 556

Piaget's second stage of cognitive development
Preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world
Development of representational thought
Cannot focus on two aspects at once
Don't understand subcategories and superordinate categories

Front 557

Egocentrism:

Back 557

Inability to see the world through anyone else's eyes

Front 558

Centration:

Back 558

In Piaget's theory
Child focuses on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features

Front 559

Conservation:

Back 559

In Piaget's theory
Ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object doesn't change the object's nature

Front 560

Irreversibility:

Back 560

In Piaget's theory
Inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action

Front 561

Concrete operations stage:

Back 561

Piaget's third stage of cognitive development
School-age child is capable of logical though processes but not yet abstract thinking
Can perform mental operations and plan actions

Front 562

Formal operations stage:

Back 562

Piaget's third stage of cognitive development
Adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking
Systematically solve problems, and think hypothetically about the world
Metacognition

Front 563

Scaffolding:

Back 563

More skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable

Front 564

Zone of proximal development (ZPD):

Back 564

Difference between what a child can do alone and what the child can do with the help of a teacher

Front 565

Piaget's constructivist theory:

Back 565

Children construct a system for understanding the world
Undergo observable, qualitative shifts in how they understand the world
4 stages of development: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, formal operational

Front 566

Perceptual and motor skills develop...

Back 566

Together

Front 567

Visual cliff experiment:

Back 567

Beginning crawlers have depth perception, but no fear of heights. 2/3 beginning crawlers crossed the deep end, but no experienced crawlers did. Fear of heights develops from experience and possibly social referencing.

Front 568

Social referencing:

Back 568

Looking to a caregiver for information

Front 569

Conservation tasks:

Back 569

Maintain quantity of the substance but look different
Used to test the ability of children to focus on two aspects at once

Front 570

Temperament:

Back 570

Behavioral characteristics fairly established at birth
Ex: easy, difficult, slow to warm up

Front 571

Attachment:

Back 571

Emotional bond between and infant and the primary caregiver

Front 572

Gender:

Back 572

Behavior associated with being male or female

Front 573

Gender identity:

Back 573

Perception of one's gender and the behavior associated with it

Front 574

Four signs of attachment:

Back 574

Separation anxiety
Stranger anxiety
Greetings/reunions behavior
Secure base behavior

Front 575

Secure base behavior:

Back 575

To what extent does the child use the caregiver as a base from which to explore

Front 576

... infants are attached to caregivers, but...

Back 576

All
Quality of attachment varies

Front 577

Strange situation test of attachment:

Back 577

10-12 months of age
8 episodes, each 3 mins long
Escalating levels of stress
Observation

Front 578

Secured attachment:

Back 578

Uses caregiver as a secure base
Goes to parent upon return
Not as responsive to stranger as to parent

Front 579

Anxious/avoidant attachment:

Back 579

Don't seem to care about parent

Front 580

Anxious/resistant:

Back 580

Very upset at separation
May show anger towards parent

Front 581

Disorganized:

Back 581

Confused, contradictory behavior

Front 582

Psychoanalytic theory of attachment:

Back 582

Attached to mom because she satisfies hunger and oral needs

Front 583

Behaviorist theory of attachment:

Back 583

Attached to parents because they reduce discomfort and hunger

Front 584

Monkey attachment experiment:

Back 584

Monkeys raised with two surrogate "moms," one wire and one cloth. All monkeys spent more time with the cloth "mom," and ran to her when stressed. Conclusion: feeding is not the primary basis of attachment.

Front 585

Ethological theory of attachment:

Back 585

Attachment protects us from danger, because we have long periods of immaturity

Front 586

Secure attachment in infancy linked to:

Back 586

Higher self-esteem and cooperation
More positive peer relationships
More satisfying romantic relationships
Secure attachment with own infant

Front 587

Warmth/responsiveness demention of parenting:

Back 587

Acceptance of child
Emotional involvement

Front 588

Control/demandingness dimension of parenting:

Back 588

Extent to which rules are set forth/reinforced

Front 589

High responsiveness, high demandingness parenting:

Back 589

Authoritative
Children are competent and cooperative

Front 590

Low responsiveness, high demandingness parenting:

Back 590

Authoritarian
Children are dependent and anxious

Front 591

High responsiveness, low demandingness parenting:

Back 591

Permissive
Children are impulsive and disobedient

Front 592

Low responsiveness, low demandingness parenting:

Back 592

Uninvolved
Children are rebellious and aggressive

Front 593

Different parenting styles have different meanings across...

Back 593

Cultures

Front 594

Short-term consequences of divorce:

Back 594

Depends on age and gender
Adjustment after about two years

Front 595

Long-term consequences of divorce:

Back 595

Nothing major
Increased likelihood of divorce
"sleeper effect"

Front 596

"sleeper effect" of divorce:

Back 596

Show negative outcomes of divorce years afterwards

Front 597

Effects of marital conflict:

Back 597

Direct: emotional difficulty for children
Indirect: undermines parenting quality

Front 598

Parental divorce is better for children than...

Back 598

High-conflict marriage

Front 599

Adolescence:

Back 599

13 to early 20s
No longer physically a child but not yet an independent adult

Front 600

Puberty:

Back 600

Physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak

Front 601

Personal fable:

Back 601

Type of thought in adolescents
Believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm

Front 602

Imaginary audience:

Back 602

Type of thought in adolescents
Other people are just as concerned about their thoughts/characteristics as they are

Front 603

Preconventional morality:

Back 603

First level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development
Behavior governed by consequences of the behavior

Front 604

Conventional morality:

Back 604

Second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development
Behavior governed by conforming to society's norms of behavior

Front 605

Postconventional morality:

Back 605

Third level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development
Behavior governed by personal moral principals, possibly in disagreement with social norms

Front 606

Identity vs role confusion:

Back 606

Stage of personality development in which the adolescent must find a consistent sense of self

Front 607

Peer monkey experiment:

Back 607

Only mother: immature play, and increased aggression/fear with peers
Only peers: increased behavior problems, and decreased exploration
Conclusion: both peers and caregiver influence development

Front 608

Concentration camp orphans:

Back 608

Raised themselves from 1-3
"rehabilitation:" highly destructive, hostile towards staff, and strongly attached to one another
Within one year they established positive relationships with others

Front 609

Peer relationships function to...

Back 609

Establish age-appropriate independence
Learn to form and maintain relationships
Learn to be intimate with others
Learn social roles

Front 610

Peer relationships in infancy:

Back 610

Increase sociability
No real peer interaction

Front 611

Peer relationships through life:

Back 611

Preschool: peer interactions slowly emerging
Elementary: peer groups emerge and gender segregation
Adolescence: formal group structure

Front 612

Solitary play style:

Back 612

Alone

Front 613

Parallel play style:

Back 613

Next to peer, but no interaction

Front 614

Associative play style:

Back 614

Next to peer, with some interaction

Front 615

Cooperative play style:

Back 615

Play with formal rules

Front 616

Peer acceptance relates to:

Back 616

Secure attachment style
Authoritative parenting
Athleticism
Extraversion
Prosocial behavior
Physical attractiveness

Front 617

Rejected children/adolescents:

Back 617

Shy/withdrawn or aggressive
More lonely, depressed, and socially anxious
At risk: dropping out of school, later depression/low self-esteem

Front 618

Rejected children show higher levels of loneliness than...

Back 618

Neglected/ignored children

Front 619

Cliques:

Back 619

Small friendship networks
3-5 kids
Locate individuals within hierarchies

Front 620

Crowds:

Back 620

Made of several cliques
Based on representation/attitude/interest
Aid development of identity

Front 621

Conformity:

Back 621

Developmentally highest in early/middle adolescence
Required by cliques/crowds

Front 622

Basis of freindships:

Back 622

Shared activities/interests
Propinquity
Homophily

Front 623

Propinquity:

Back 623

Friendships can't be formed between children who haven't met

Front 624

Homophily:

Back 624

Friends tend to be similar in age, gender, ethnicity, and peer status

Front 625

Friends are more likely to:

Back 625

Interact more
Cooperate better
Enjoy each other's company more
Resolve conflicts better

Front 626

Good, quality friendships linked to:

Back 626

Quality of romantic relationships
Social competence
Prosocial behavior
Self-esteem
Low agression

Front 627

Burnout:

Back 627

Negative changes in thought/emotion/behavior resulting from prolonged stress/frustration

Front 628

Acculturative stress:

Back 628

Stress resulting from the need to change ways to the majority culture

Front 629

Social-support system:

Back 629

Network of people who can offer support/comfort/aid to a needy person

Front 630

Coping strategies:

Back 630

Actions that people can take to reduce stress

Front 631

Problem-focused coping:

Back 631

Coping strategy
Eliminate source of stress or reduce its impact through direct actions

Front 632

Emotion-focused coping:

Back 632

Coping strategy
Change the impact of stress by changing its emotional reaction

Front 633

Meditation:

Back 633

Mental series of exercises to refocus attention and achieve a trance-like state of conciousness

Front 634

Concentrative meditation:

Back 634

Form of meditation
Focus on an unchanging stimulus to clear disturbing thoughts of the mind and relax the body

Front 635

Receptive meditation:

Back 635

Form of meditation
Person attempts to become aware of everything, or an expansion of the consciousness

Front 636

Two historical models of psychological disorders:

Back 636

Demonic model - middle ages
Medical model - renaissance (asylums)

Front 637

Aspects of psychological disorders:

Back 637

Rarity - rare in the population
Subjective distress - individuals feel worried/stressed
Impairment - can't function in daily life
Biological dysfunction - physiological problem
BUT each of these has exceptions

Front 638

Modern researches look at psychological disorders as...

Back 638

Failures of adaptation to the enviornment

Front 639

Valid diagnosis of psychological disorders:

Back 639

Distinguishes disorder from similar disorders
Predicts performance on lab tasks
Predicts likely family history
Predicts their change over time

Front 640

DSM-IV is the official standard of...

Back 640

Diagnosing mental disorders, and provides both background info and warning about similar psychical conditions

Front 641

5 axis of the DMS-IV

Back 641

Major clinical disorders
Personality disorders and mental retardation
Medical conditions/physical disorders
Life stressors that contribute to disorder
Assessment of overall functioning

Front 642

Comorbid:

Back 642

Co-occurrence of 2+ diagnoses for the same person
Common

Front 643

Criticism of the DMS-IV:

Back 643

Comorbid
Categorical vs dimensional models of disorder

Front 644

Categorical model of disorders:

Back 644

A person either has a disorder or doesn't, no in-between

Front 645

Dimensional model of disorder:

Back 645

People have varying degrees of disorders

Front 646

Anxiety disorders:

Back 646

Disorders in which the main symptom is excessive anxiety/fearfulness

Front 647

Free-floating anxiety:

Back 647

Anxiety that is unrelated to a realistic, known source

Front 648

Phobia:

Back 648

Irrational, persistent fear of an object/situation/social activity

Front 649

Social phobia:

Back 649

Fear of interacting with others or being in social situations that might lead to a negative evaluation

Front 650

Specific phobia:

Back 650

Fear of objects or specific situations/events

Front 651

Claustrophobia:

Back 651

Fear of being in small, enclosed space

Front 652

Acrophobia:

Back 652

Fear of hights

Front 653

Agoraphobia:

Back 653

Fear of being in a place/situation from which escape is difficult/impossible
Activated by crowds, but not not a fear of crowds
First emerges in adolescence
Usually results from panic disorder

Front 654

Panic disorder with agoraphobia:

Back 654

Fear of leaving one's familiar surroundings because one might have a panic attack public

Front 655

Obsessive-compulsive disorder:

Back 655

Obsessions - persistent and intrusive thoughts/impulses
Compulsions - repetitive acts to reduce anxiety/shame
Realizes obsessions are products of their own mind
Obsessions must take one hour per day

Front 656

Acute stress disorder (ASD):

Back 656

Resulting from a major stressor, with symptoms occurring as long as one month after the event

Front 657

Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD):

Back 657

Resulting from intense fear of serious injury/death of self/loved ones, with symptoms lasting over a month after the event
Flashbacks/dreams of the traumatic event
Avoiding reminders of the event
Anxiety, difficulty sleeping, and frequent startle response

Front 658

Magnification:

Back 658

Tendency to interpret situations as far more dangerous/important than they actually are

Front 659

All-or-nothing thinking:

Back 659

Tendency to believe performance must be perfect or it will be a total failure

Front 660

Overgeneralization:

Back 660

Tendency to interpret a single negative event as a never-ending pattern of defeat and failure

Front 661

Minimization:

Back 661

Tendency to give little/no importance to successes/positive events/traits

Front 662

Affect:

Back 662

Indicating "emotion" or "mood"

Front 663

Mood disorders:

Back 663

Disorders in which the mood is severely disturbed

Front 664

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD):

Back 664

Mood disorder caused by bodily reaction to low levels of sunlight during the winter

Front 665

Anorexia:

Back 665

Person reduces eating to the point that a wight loss of 15%+ below the ideal body weight occurs

Front 666

Bulimia:

Back 666

Develops a cycle or overeating enormously at one sitting and then using unhealthy methods to avoid weight gain

Front 667

Anxiety - rarity

Back 667

Most common psychological disorder
29% lifetime prevalence
Average age of onset: 11 years old
More common in females

Front 668

Generalized anxiety disorder:

Back 668

Spend 60% of each day worrying
Anxious thoughts, irritability, difficulty sleeping, physical tension/fatigue
Tend to worry about upcoming events
1/3 usually follows major stressful event or lifestyle change

Front 669

People with generalized anxiety disorder tend to be:

Back 669

Caucasian
Poor
Middle-aged
Widowed or divorced
Prone to "self-medication" with drugs/alcohol

Front 670

Panic disorder:

Back 670

Panic attacks are repeated and unexpected (rarely to daily)
Constant worry about panic attacks
Change in behavior/lifestyle

Front 671

Panic attack:

Back 671

Nervous feelings that escalate into intense fear or terror
Often mistaken for a heart attack
Can occur without panic disorder
More likely with a anxiety/mood/eating disorder

Front 672

Phobia:

Back 672

Intense fear of an object/situation that is greatly disproportionate to it's actual threat
Must restrict our life and/or cause considerable distress
Most common anxiety disorder

Front 673

Lifetime prevalence of specific phobias:

Back 673

12.5%

Front 674

Social phobia lifetime prevalence:

Back 674

12.1%

Front 675

Learning theory to explain anxiety disorder:

Back 675

Result from negative experiences
Avoiding anxiety source is negatively reinforcing
Can be acquired through modeling

Front 676

Cognitive theory to explain anxiety disorder:

Back 676

Perceive ambiguous situations as negative
Engage in catastrophic thinking (predict the worst)

Front 677

Biological influences of anxiety disorder:

Back 677

Genetic correlates, possibly due to influence of neuroticism
Show brain differences

Front 678

Major depressive disorder:

Back 678

Occurrence of 1+ major depressive episode
2x more common in females
Begins between 15-24 years old, peak in 30s
5-6 in a lifetime, usually 6 months to a year long
Earlier onset predicts greater recurrence

Front 679

Major depressive episode:

Back 679

Severely depressed or loss of interest for 2+ weeks
Changes in appetite/weight, sleep, and movement time
Fatigue
Low self-worth
Difficulty concentrating
Repeated thoughts of death/suicide

Front 680

Life events to explain major depressive disorder:

Back 680

Loss of something valued
Pessimism or anxiety can increase risk of loss

Front 681

Interpersonal model to explain major depressive disorder:

Back 681

Push people away and reduce support, which triggers more depression

Front 682

Behavioral model to explain major depressive disorder:

Back 682

Repeatedly receive low rewards, so they stop seeking positive reinforcement

Front 683

Cognitive model of major depressive disorder:

Back 683

Negative expectations of everyone
Cognitive distortions
Learned helplessness

Front 684

Cognitive distortions:

Back 684

Perceive/acknowledge negative aspects of a situation

Front 685

Biological influences of major depressive disorder:

Back 685

Moderate genetic link
Variations in the serotonin transporter gene
Low brain reaction to reward
Low levels of dopamine

Front 686

Bipolar disorder:

Back 686

1+ occurrences of manic episodes
90% who experience one manic episode with experience another
1/2 of manic episodes are followed by major depressive episode
85% heritability
Manic episodes triggered by intense negative/positive life events

Front 687

Manic episodes:

Back 687

Elevated mood and self-esteem
Decreased need for sleep
Greatly heightened energy
Increased talkativeness
Irresponsible behavior

Front 688

Therapy:

Back 688

Treatment methods aimed at making people feel better and function more effectively

Front 689

Psychotherapy:

Back 689

Therapy for mental disorders
Person with problem talks with a psychological professional

Front 690

Biomedical therapy:

Back 690

Therapy for mental disorder
Problem is treated with biological/medical methods to relieve symptoms

Front 691

Insight therapies:

Back 691

Help people gain insight into their behavior/thoughts/feelings

Front 692

Action therapy:

Back 692

Change disordered/inappropriate behavior directly

Front 693

Psychoanalysis:

Back 693

Insight therapy based on Freud's theory
Emphasizes the revealing of unconscious conflict
Requires years/decades of meeting multiple days a week

Front 694

Manifest content:

Back 694

Actual content of one's dream

Front 695

Latent conflict:

Back 695

Symbolic meaning of dreams

Front 696

Free association:

Back 696

Psychoanalysis technique
Talk about anything that came to mind without fear of negative evaluations

Front 697

Resistance:

Back 697

When patient becomes reluctant to talk about a certain topic, by changing the subject or becoming silent

Front 698

Transference:

Back 698

Psychoanalysis
Tendency for patient to project feelings for important people of the past onto the therapist

Front 699

Directive:

Back 699

Psychoanalytical therapy
Therapist actively gives interpretations of a client's statements and may suggest certain behavior

Front 700

Psychodynamic therapy:

Back 700

Based on psychoanalysis with an emphasis on transference, shorter treatment times, and a more direct therapeutic approach
Adverse behavior comes from traumatic childhood experiences
Therapy based on analysis

Front 701

Interpersonal therapy:

Back 701

Form of therapy for depression which incorporates multiple approaches and focuses on interpersonal problems

Front 702

Eclectic:

Back 702

Approach to therapy
Combining elements of several different approaches/techniques

Front 703

Nondirective:

Back 703

Therapist is neutral and doesn't interpret/take direct actions, instead remaining a calm, nonjudgmental listener while the client talks

Front 704

Person-centered therapy:

Back 704

Nondirective insight therapy
Client does all the talking and the therapist listens
3 conditions for a positive therapy outcome: therapist must be: authentic, unconditionally positive regard, empathetic

Front 705

Reflection:

Back 705

Therapy technique
Therapist restates what the client says rather than interpreting

Front 706

Unconditional positive regard:

Back 706

Person-centered therapy
Warmth/respect/accepting atmosphere created by the therapist

Front 707

Gestalt therapy:

Back 707

Form of direct therapy
Therapist helps client's to accept all parts of their feelings/experiences, using leading questions and planned experiences (ex: role-playing, two-chair technique (allows synthesis of conflicts))
Focuses on accepting present thoughts and feelings

Front 708

Behavior therapies:

Back 708

Action therapies change disordered behavior without concern for the causes of it
Use principles of learning, especially classical conditioning, operant conditioning and observational learning
Focus on specific problematic thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

Front 709

Behavior modification:
Applied behavior analysis:

Back 709

Use of learning techniques to change undesirable behavior and increase desired behavior

Front 710

Systematic desensitization:

Back 710

Behavior technique used to treat phobias
Client makes a list of ordered fears and taught how to relax while concentrating on those fears

Front 711

Aversion therapy:

Back 711

Form of behavioral therapy
Undesirable behavior paired with an aversive stimulus to reduce frequency of the behavior
Not consistently effective

Front 712

Exposure therapies:

Back 712

Behavioral technique
Expose individuals to fear-related stimuli under controlled conditions to promote new learning

Front 713

Flooding:

Back 713

Technique for treating phobias
Rapidly and intensely exposed to fear-provoking situation and prevented form making the usual avoidance response
Theory: fears are maintained by avoidance, and the client never learns they are unrealistic
Effective in treating: OCD, social phobia, PTSD, and aoraphobia

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Participant modeling:

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Model demonstrates the desired behavior in a gradual process, and the client is encouraged to imitate the model
Client can practice coping/social skills
Ex: behavioral reversal (role-playing)
Treats: schizophrenia, autism, depression, ADHD, and social anxiety

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Token economy:

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Use of tokens to reinforce behavior in which the tokens can be accumulated and exchanged for desired items/privileges
Limitations: difficult to administer, unable to generalize to other settings
Successful: in classrooms, treating ADHD/schizophrenia

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Contingency contract:

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Formal, written agreement between two people in which goals for behavior change/reinforcements/punishments are clearly stated

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Extinction:

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Removal of reinforcer to reduce frequency of a behavior

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Time-out:

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Extinction process
Person removed from the situation that provides reinforcement for bad behavior, usually placed in a quiet corner away from possible attention/reinforcement

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Criticism of psychodynamic therapy:

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Positive behavior predicts recovery more than understanding conflict
Little evidence for suppression of traumatic memories
Better than no therapy, but less effective than cognitive-behavioral therapy
Ineffective for treating psychotic disorders

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Humanistic therapy:

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Focus on the present and therapists be loving and authentic
Goal: self-actualization
Criticism: authenticity of therapist or positive therapy not related to success

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Support for person-centered therapy:

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Therapeutic relationships predict success better than specific therapeutic techniques
Empathy and positive regard related to therapy success

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Cognitive therapy:

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Focus on helping clients recognize distortions in their thinking and replace them with realistic thoughts

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Arbitrary inference:

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Distortion of thinking
Conclusion not based on evidence

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Selective thinking:

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Distortion of thinking
Focus on one aspect of a situation while ignoring other relevant aspects

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Overgeneralization:

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Distortion of thinking
Conclusions based on one event and applies it to other unrelated events

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Magnification and minimization:

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Distortion of thinking
Blows negative event's importance out of proportion, while ignoring relative positive events

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Personalization:

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Distortion of thinking
Take blame for events unconnected to one

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Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT):

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Action therapy
Goal: help clients overcome problems by learning to think rationally
Cognitions are identifiable and control healthy/unhealthy functions
Irrational beliefs can be replaced by positive cognitions

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Rational-emotive behavioral therapy (REBT):

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Cognitive-behavioral therapy
Clients challenged in irrational beliefs and helped to restructure thinking
ABCs: Activating belief, Beliefs, Consequences

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Family counseling/therapy:

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Form of group therapy
Families meet with counselor to resolve problems affecting the family

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Self-help/support groups:

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Group of people who have similar problems and meet without a therapist for discussion, problems solving, and support

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Therapeutic alliance:

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Relationship between therapist and client that develops
Warm, caring, and accepting relationship with empathy, mutual respect, and understanding

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Cybertherapy:

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Psychotherapy offered on the Internet

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Biomedical therapies:

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Directly affect biological functioning of body and brain

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Psychopharmacology:

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Use of drugs to control symptoms of psychological disorders
Don't know why drugs are effective
Side effects: nausea, fatigue, drowsiness, impaired sexual performance - usually removed without medication - and dependence

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Antipsychotic drugs:

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Treat psychotic symptoms (ex: delusions, hallucinations, etc.)

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Anti-anxiety drugs:

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Used to treat anxiety reactions, typically minor tranquilizers

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Anti-depressant drugs:

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Used to treat depression and anxiety

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Electro convulsive therapy (ECT):

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Form of biomedical therapy
To treat severe depression
Electrodes placed on side of a person's head and a current strong enough to cause a seizure passed through them

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Psychosurgery:

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Surgery on brain tissue to control severe psychological disorders

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Prefrontal lobotomy:

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Psychosurgery
Connections of prefrontal lobes to rear portions are severed

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Bilateral anterior cingulotomy:

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Psychosurgical technique
Electrode wire insulted into brain guided by a magnetic imaging machine for destroying the area of brain tissue with an electric current

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Systematic desensitization:

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Patient gradually exposed to what they fear, with increasing anxiety
Counterconditioning: paring incompatible response with anxiety-causing stimulus
Effective in treating: phobias, insomnia, nightmares, and some speech disorders

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Behavioral and cognitive-behavioral therapies are... effective, both more effective than..., and at least (if not more) than...

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Equally
No/placebo treatment
Psychodynamic/person-centered/drug therapies

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Common factors, such as..., across therapies explain similar...

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Empathetic listening, establishing a bond with client, and trying to modify behavior/thoughts
Effectiveness

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Some therapies, such as..., can... problems in a portion of patients

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Crisis debriefing following trauma, or "scared straight" programs
Increase

Front 747

Criticisms of psychological medications:

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Don't make the patient develop coping skills or modify behavior
Relapse once off of medication
More expensive than therapy in the long term

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Medications are worthwhile to treat psychological disorders if...

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Impairment is severe
Patient isn't responding to therapy