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128 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
sensation
the process of detecting physical energy (a stimulus) from the environment and converting it into neural signals to represent the world (your senses)
good to know: senses
we perceive the world not as it actually is, but as it is useful for us to perceive it.
perception
the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting our sensations (how you're taking in and processing info from sensations)
good to know: sensation & perception
your senses and perceptions blend into one continuous process
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 230)

notes: senses first, then brain & mind (entry level)
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 230)

notes: brain first, then senses
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 231)
difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (or jnd). (Myers Psychology 9e p. 234)
wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 237)
intensity
the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 237)
hue
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 237)
rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 238)

notes: function in dim light
cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 238)
table 6.1, p 239
sensitivity in dim light: cones-low rods-high
color sensitivity: cones-high rods-low
detail sensitivity: cones-high rods-low
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 242)
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory, p 244
Young and von Helmholtz theorized that the retina contains three different color receptors-one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue-which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 244)

*first scientific theory of color vision
*3 types of cones
3 basic colors
*RED light - sensitive to LONG wavelengths
*GREEN light - sensitive to MEDIUM wavelengths
*BLUE light - sensitive to SHORT wavelengths
audition
the sense or act of hearing. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 245)
frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second). (Myers Psychology 9e p. 246)

notes: the dimension of frequency determined by the wavelength of sound
pitch
a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 246)
wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 237)
frequency and pitch, p 246
long waves = low frequency & low pitch
short waves = high frequency & high pitch
place theory
in hearing, the theory developed by Hermann von Helmoholtz that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 249)
frequency theory
in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 249)
place theory vs frequency theory, p 249
place theory best explains how we sense high pitches, frequency theory best explains how we sense low pitches, and some combination of place and frequency seems to handle the pitches in the intermediate range
kinesthesis
[kin-ehs-THEE-sehs] the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 254)
vestibular sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 254)
gate-control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is CLOSED by activity in LARGER fibers or by information coming from the brain. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 255)

notes: ex. Ralston who cut off his own arm when trapped under a boulder
What are some examples of "gate-closing" stimulation for treatment of chronic pain?
*massage
*electric stimulation
*acupuncture
What are the 5 basic taste sensations and what might be the survival function of each?
*sweet - energy source
*salty - sodium essential to physiological processes
*sour - potentially toxic acid
*bitter - potential poisons
*umami - proteins to grow and repair tissue
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 259)
good to know: sensory interaction
examples of sensory interaction:
*when holding your nose & closing your eyes, a slice of apple may be indistinguishable from a chunk of raw potato
*a hard-of-hearing listener sees an animated face forming the words being spoken at the other end of a phone line and the words become easier to understand
smell
occurs when molecules of a substance carried in the air reach a tiny cluster of 5 million or more receptor cells at the top of each nasal cavity
*like taste, smell is a chemical
*unlike taste, there are many different forms of smell
good to know: smell
smell is the only sense that has a direct link to the brain (linked to memory)
gestalt
an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 263)

notes: in perception, the whole may exceed the sum of its parts; our brain does more than register information about the world - we constantly filter sensory information & infer perception in ways that make sense to us
form perception - figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground). (Myers Psychology 9e p.264)

notes: distinct from surroundings
form perception - grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 265)

Notes: Although grouping principles usually help us construct reality, they may occasionally lead us astray. types of grouping: proximity, similarity, continuity, connectedness, & closure
proximity
we group nearby figures together
(fig 6.30, p 265) we see three sets of two lines, not six separate lines
similarity
we group similar figures together
(fig 6.30, p 265) we see the triangles and circles as vertical columns of similar shapes, not as horizontal rows of dissimilar shapes
continuity
we perceive smooth, continuous patters rather than discontinuous ones
(fig 6.30, p 265) the pattern in the lower-left corner could be a series of alternating semicircles, but we perceive it as two continuous lines-one wavy, one straight
connectedness
(fig 6.30, p 265) because they are uniform and linked, we perceive each set of two dots and the line between them as a single unit
closure
we fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object
(first set of open circles fig, p 265) We assume that the circles are complete but partially blocked by the (illusory) triangle. Add nothing more than little line segments that close off the circles (second set of open circles fig, p 265) and now your brain stops constructing a triangle.
perceptual constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 269)
perceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 275)
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 294)
US
in classical conditioning, a STIMULUS that unconditionally-NATURALLY and AUTOMATICALLY-triggers a response.

notes: Pavlov example - food
UR
unconditioned response - in classical conditioning, the UNLEARNED, NATURALLY occurring RESPONSE to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. (natural response to US)

notes: Pavlov example - salivation
NS
neutral stimulus - in classical conditioning, a STIMULUS that has NOT been PAIRED with the unconditioned stimulus (US) and elicits NO RESPONSE. (no meaning before association)

notes: Pavlov example - bell
CS
conditioned stimulus - in classical conditioning, an ORIGINALLY IRRELEVANT STIMULANT that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to TRIGGER a CONDITIONED RESPONSE. (was neutral, now has meaning)

notes: Pavlov example - bell
CR
conditioned response - in classical conditioning, the LEARNED RESPONSE TO a PREVIOUSLY NEUTRAL (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS). (from unconditional to conditional after paired)

notes: Pavlov example - salivation
good to know: classical conditioning
US (food) & UR (salivation) - naturally paired
NS (bell) & CS (bell) - turns from one to the other
CR (salivation) - same as UR
acquisition
in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 296)
extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 297)
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 298)
generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 298)
discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 299)
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 304)

notes: VOLUNTARY BEHAVIOR (behaviors followed by + or - consequence make you want to do it again) Skinner
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 305)
reinforcer
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 307)

notes: reinforcements increase behavior (+,-)
positive reinforcement
(+) increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 307)

notes: giving something (+) examples - food, money, praise, attention (even yelling for a child hungry for attention)
negative reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (negative reinforcement is not punishment.) (Myers Psychology 9e p. 307)

notes: Taking something away (-). examples - Taking aspirin (end of pain), pushing the snooze button (end of alarm). Taking away or reducing a negative stimuli will increase the odds that you will repeat these behaviors (drug addicts)
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 309)

notes: piecework pay
variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 309)

notes: behaviors like gambling, fishing (you don't know when
fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 309)

notes: preparing for an exam only when the exam draws close (choppy)
variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 309)

notes: pop quiz, checking email
schedules of reinforcement, table 7.2, p 310
Fixed RATIO: Every so MANY; reinforcement after every nth behavior, such as buy 10 coffees, get 1 free, or pay per product unit produced.
Variable RATIO: After an unpredictable NUMBER; reinforcement after a random number of behaviors, as when playing slot machines or fly-casting.
Fixed-INTERVAL: Every so OFTEN; reinforcement for behavior after a fixed time, such as Tuesday discount prices.
Variable-INTERVAL: Unpredictably OFTEN; reinforcement for behavior after a random amount of time, as in checking for email.
good to know: ratio schedules
both fixed-ratio and variable-ratio have a high rate of response
good to know: interval schedules
both fixed-interval and variable-interval are based on a set amount of time
punishment
an aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows. (+,-) (Myers Psychology 9e p. 310)

notes: positive (+) punishment gives (speeding ticket, spanking); negative (-) punishment withdrawls (time-outs, license taken away)
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 312)

notes: they're not going to do it until they receive something (rats explored maze for 10 days, then a food reward was received at the end of the maze. They quickly demonstrated their prior learning of the maze bu immediately completing it as quickly as (& faster) than rats that had been reinforced for running the maze.
observational learning
learning by observing others. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 317)
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 317)
mirror neurons
frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 318)
What did we learn from Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiment?
Observing an aggressive outburst can lower our inhibitions to do the same. We look and we learn. Models - in one's family or neighborhood, or TV - may have effects - good or bad.
What did Bandura believe determines whether we will imitate a model?
He believed that part of the answer is reinforcements and punishments - those received by the model as well as by the imitator. By watching, we learn to anticipate a behavior's consequences in situations like those we are observing. We are especially likely to imitate people we perceive as similar to ourselves, as successful, or as admirable.
How do we form and retrieve memories?
1. we must get information into our brain (encoding)
2. retain that information (storage)
3. later get it back out (retrieval)
What is the 3 stage model for memory?
*sensory input from environment is recorded as a fleeting sensory memory
*Information is processed in short-term memory
*Information is encoded into long-term memory for later retrieval
encoding
the processing of information into the memory system for example, by extracting meaning. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 328)
storage
the retention of encoded information over time. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 328)
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 328)
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 329)
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 329)
working memory (short-term memory)
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 329)
rehearsal
the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 331)
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 342)
semantic encoding (processing)
the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 333)
retrieval: getting information out of memory
*recall: bringing previously learned information into conscious awareness, as in fill-in-the-blank question on a test
*recognition: correctly identifying previously learned information when exposed to it again, as in a multiple-choice test
*context effects: ability to recall is improved when in the same context as the initial experience
*state-dependent memory: recall is improved when encoding and retrieval of a memory happen in the same emotional or biological state
-it is difficult to remember happy times when depressed
-this may explain why after a happy experience, people view the world through rose-colored glasses
state-dependent memory
recall is improved when encoding and retrieval of a memory happen in the same emotional or biological state
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 349)
source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 358)
misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 357)
semantics
the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 384)

notes: (rules for deriving meaning) in English, a semantic rule tells us that adding -ed to laugh means that it happened in the past
syntax
the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 384)

notes: (rules for ordering words into sentences) one rule of English syntax says that adjectives usually come before nouns, so we say "white house."
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin). (Myers Psychology 9e p. 370)
concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 369)
What are the 4 types of problem solving techniques?
1. trial and error
2. algorithm
3. Heuristics
4. insight
algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier but also more error-prone-use of heuristics. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 371)

notes: can be time consuming, but thorough
Heuristics
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 371)

notes: uses shortcuts; no guarantee of solution
insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 371)

notes: not really strategy at all, both animals and people have insight, "aha experience"
representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 374)
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 375)
confirmation bias
obstacles to problem solving: a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 372)
fixation
obstacles to problem solving: the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 373)
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 381)
Wernicke's area
controls language reception-a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 389)

notes: damage in this area causes a person to speak only in meaningless words (disrupts understanding)
Broca's area
controls language expression-an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 389)

notes: damage in this area causes a person to struggle to speak works while still being able to sing familiar songs and comprehend speech (disrupts speaking)
stages of speech (names)
1. Babbling Stage: (Beginning at 4 months) the infant spontaneously utters various sounds, like ah-goo. Babbling is not imitation of adult speech
2. One-Word Stage: (Beginning at or around his first birthday) a child starts to speak one word at a time and is able to make family members understand him. The word doggy may mean look at the dog out there.
3. Two-Word Stage: (Before the 2nd year) a child starts to speak in two-word sentences. This form of speech is called telegraphic speech because the child speaks like a telegram: “Go car,” means I would like to go for a ride in the car.
4. Longer phrases: (After telegraphic speech 24+) children begin uttering longer phrases (Mommy get ball) with syntactical sense, and by early elementary school they are employing humor.
How did Skinner believe we learn language?
Skinner proposed that we learn language by the familiar principles of association (of sights of things with sounds of words), imitation (of words and syntax modeled by others), and reinforcement (with smiles and hugs after saying something right).
How did Chomsky believe we learn language?
Chomsky argues that we are born with a language acquisition device that biologically prepares us to learn language and that equips us with a universal grammar, which we use to learn a specific language. Cognitive researchers believe childhood is a critical period for learning spoken and signed language.
Alfred Binet
Alfred Binet and practiced a more modern form of intelligence testing by developing questions that would predict children’s future progress in school.

He believed his intelligence test did not measure inborn intelligence as a meter stick measures height; it had a single practical purpose: to identify schoolchildren who needed special attention. He hoped his test would be used to improve children's education; feared it would be used to label & limit opportunities.

notes: developed mental age
mental age
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as the average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 416)
Stanford-Binet
the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 417)
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 412)
What are the four components that make up emotional intelligence?
1. ability to perceive emotion: Recognize emotions in faces, music and stories
2. ability to understand emotion: Predict emotions, how they change and blend
3. ability to manage emotion: Express emotions in different situations
4. ability to use emotion: Utilize emotions to adapt or be creative
standardization
defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 419)

notes: typically distributed in a bell curve (symmetrical shape); large representative sample of people to establish norms (averages)
reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on TWO HALVES of the test, or on RETESTING. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 421)

notes: remember RETEST; higher correlation = higher reliability; consistant results when administered on repeated occasions
validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 421)

notes: what the test is supposed to measure or predict; extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest; ex. road test for a driver's license
good to know: validity
High reliability does not ensure a test's validity. If you use an inaccurate measuring tape to measure people's heights, your height report would have high reliability (consistency) but low validity.
types of validity
1. Content Validity: Refers to the extent a test measures a particular behavior or trait. (ex. road test)
2. Predictive Validity: Refers to the function of a test in predicting a particular behavior or trait. (ex. intelligence test - criterion of future performance)

ex. the road test for a driver's license has content validity because it samples the tasks a driver routinely faces
motivation
a need or desire that ENERGIZES and DIRECTS behavior. (Myers Psychology 9e p.443)
homeostasis
a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 445)
drive-reduction theory
Drive reduction motivation arises from homeostasis - an organism's natural tendency to maintain a steady internal state. Thus, if we are water deprived, our thirst drives us to drink & to restore the body's normal state.

NEED -----------> DRIVE ---------> Drive-reducing behaviors
(eg for (hunger, (eating, drinking)
food water) thirst)
incentive
a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 445)

notes: PUSHED by need; PULLED by incentives
Maslow's Hierarchy of needs
Pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 446)
levels and orders of Maslow's hierarchy
know which comes first
good to know: motivation
cornerstone: people want to live up to their fullest potential (self-actualization)
set point (hunger)
the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight. (Myers Psychology 9e p. 451)
What is the main difference between anorexia and bulimia nervosa?
to be clinically diagnosed as anorexic, a person must be significantly (15 percent or more) underweight

notes: said another way, 85% or below bodyweight