Psychology 100 Vocabulary

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Casual Event

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Events which cause other events

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Physiological psychology

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Branch of Psychology which studies the Physiological basis of behavior

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Comparative psychology

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Branch of psychology that studies the behaviors of a variety of organisms in an attempt to understand the adaptive and functional significance of behaviors and relationships to evolution

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Behavior analysis

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studies the effect of the environment on behavior-effects of consequences of behaviors on behaviors themselves

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Behavior genetics

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studies the role of genetics in behavior

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Cognitive psychology

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studies complex behaviors and mental processes such as perception, attention, learning, memory, verbal behavior, concept formation and problem solving

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Cognitive neuroscience

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attempts to understand cognitive psychological functions by studying brain mechanisms resposible

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Development psychology

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studies changes in behavioral, perceptual and cognitive capabilities of organisms as a function of age and experience

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Social psychology

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studies effects which people have on each others' behavior

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Personality psychology

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categorizes and understands the causes of individual differences in patterns of behavior

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Evolutionary psychology

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explains behavior in terms of adaptive advantages that specific behaviors provided during the evolution of a species. Evolutionary psychologists use natural selection as a guiding principle

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cross-cultural psychology

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studies effects of culture on behavior

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Clinical psychology

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investigates and treats abnormal behavior and psychological disorders

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Reflex

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auto response to a stimulus

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Dualism

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the idea that reality consists of mind and matter

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Model

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simple system which works on a known principle and is able to do some of the things a more complex system can do

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Empiricism

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all knowledge is obtained through the senses

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Materialism

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reality can be known only through an understanding of the physical world, of which the mind is a part.

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Determinism

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the doctrine that behavior is the result of prior events

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Psycho physics

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measures the quantitative relation between physical stimulae and perceptual experience

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Law of effect

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Thorndike's observation that stimuli which occur as a consequence of a response can increase or decrease the likelihood of making that response again

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Structuralism

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system of experimental psychology that began with wundt. Emphasized introspective analysis of sensation and perception

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Introspection

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looking within, in an attempt to describe one's own memories, perceptions, cognitive processes, or motivations

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Functionalism

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strategy of understanding a species' structural or behavioral features by attempting to establish their usefulness with respect to survival and reproductive success

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Behaviorism

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movement in psychology that asserts that the only proper subject matter for scientific study in psychology is observable behavior

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Humanistic psychology

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an approach to the study of human behavior that emphasizes human experience, choice and creativity, self realization and positive growth

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Gestault psychology

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movement in psychology that emphasized that cognitive processes could be understood by studying their organization, not their elements

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Information processing

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an approach used by cognitive psychologists to explain the workings of the brain; information received through the senses is process by systems of neurons in the brain

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Scientific method

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set of rules that governs the collections and analysis of data gained through observational studies or experiments

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Naturalistic observation

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the observation of behavior of people or other animals in their natural enviroments

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Clinical Observation

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The observation of people who are undergoing diagnosis or treatment

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Correlational study

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Examination of relations between two or more measurements of behavior or other characteristics of people or other animals

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Experiment

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Study in which the researcher changes the value of an independent variable and observes whether this manipulation affects the value of a dependent variable. Only experiments can confirm the existence of cause-and-effect relations among variables

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Hypothesis

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Statement designed to be tested by an experiment that tentatively expresses a cause-and-effect relationship between two or more events

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Theory

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Set of statements designed to explain a set of phenomena. More encompassing than a hypothesis

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Case study

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A detailed description of an individual's behavior during the course of a clinical treatment or diagnosis

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Survey study

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A study of people's responses to standardized questions

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Variable

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Anything capable of assuming any of several values.

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Manipulation

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Setting the values of an independent variable during an experiment to see whether the value of another variable is affected

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Experimental group

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Group of participants in an experiment, the members of which are exposed to a particular value of the independent variable, which has been manipulated by the researcher.

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Control group

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a comparison group in an experiment, the members are exposed to the naturally occurring or zero value of the independent variable

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Independent variable

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variable that is manipulated in an experiment as a means of determining cause-and-effect relations.

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Dependent variable

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variable measured in an experiment

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Nominal fallacy

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the false belief that one has explained the causes of a phenomenon by identifying and naming it;eg. Believing that one has explained lazy behavior by attributing it to laziness.

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Operational definition

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the definition of a variable in terms of the operations the researcher performs to measure/manipulate it.

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Validity

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degree to which the operational definition of a variable accurately reflects the variable it is designed to measure/manipulate

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Confounding of variables

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inadvertent simultaneous manipulation of more than one variable. the results of an experiment involving confounded variables permit no valid conclusions about cause and effect

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Counterbalancing

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systematic variation of conditions in experiment, such as the orfer of presentation of stimuli, so that different participants encounter them in different orders. This prevents confounding of independent variables with time dependent processes such as habituation or fatigue

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Reliability

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the repeatability of a measurement; the likelihood that if the measurement was made again, it would yield the same value.

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Interrater reliability

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degree to which two or more independent observers agree in their ratings of another organisms behavior

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Random assignment

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procedure in which each participant has an equally likely chance of being assigned to any of the conditions or groups of an experiment

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Placebo

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an inert substance that cannot be distinguished in appearance from a real medication. used as the control substance in a single blind or double blind experiment

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single-blind study

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an experiment in which the researcher, but not the participant knows the value of the independent variable

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double-blind study

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an experiment in which neither the researcher or the participant knows the value of the independent variable

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Correlational study

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the examination of relations between 2 or more measurements of behavior or other characteristics of people or other animals.

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Matching

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systematic selection of participants in groups of an experiment or(more often) a correlational study to ensure that the mean values of important participant variables of the groups are similar

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Replication

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Repetition of an experiment or observational study to see whether previous results will be obtained

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Sample

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selection of elements from a larger population. Eg, group of participants selected to participate in an experiment

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Generalization

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conclusion that the results obtained from a sample apply also to the population from which the sample was taken

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Informed consent

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agreement to participate in an experiment after being informed about the nature of the research and any possible risks or benefits

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Confidentiality

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privacy of participants and non-disclosure of their participation in a research project

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Debriefing

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full disclosure to research participants of the nature and purpose of a research project after it's completion

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Descriptive statistics

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mathematical procedures for organizing collections of data, such as determining the mean, median, range, variance, and the correlation coefficient

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Measure of central tendency

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statistical measure used to characterize the value of items in a sample of numbers.

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Mean

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measure of central tendency; the sum of a group of numbers divided by the number of terms; the arithmetical average

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Median

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measure of central tendency; the midpoint of a group of values arranged numerically

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Measure of variability

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a statistical measure used to characterize the dispersion in values of items in a sample of numbers

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Range

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the difference between the highest score and the lowest score of a sample

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Standard deviation

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a statistic that expresses the variability of a measurement; square root of the average of the squared deviations from the mean

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Scatterplot

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a graph of items that have two values; one value is plotted against the horizontal axis and the other against the vertical axis

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Correlation coefficient

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a measurement of the degree to which two variables are related

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Statistical significance

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the likelihood that an observed relation or difference between two variables really exists rather than is due to chance factors

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inferential statistics

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mathematical procedures for determining whether relations or differences between samples are statistically significant

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Biological evolution

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changes that take place in the genetic and physical characteristics of a population or group of organisms over time

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Adaptive significance

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the effectiveness of behavior in adding organisms to adapt to changing environmental conditions

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Ultimate causes

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evolutionary conditions that have slowly shaped the behavior of a species over generations

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Proximate causes

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immediate environmental events and conditions that effect behavior

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Culture

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the sum of socially transmitted knowledge, customs, and behavior patterns common to a particular group of people

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Artificial selection

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procedure in which particular animals are deliberately mated to produce offspring with especially desirable characteristics

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Natural selection

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the consequence of the fact that, because there are physical and behavioral differences among organisms, they reproduce differently, within a given population, some animals will produce more offspring than the other animals

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reproductive success

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the number of viable offspring an individual produces relative to the number of viable offspring produced by other members of the same species

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Variation

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the diffferences found across individuals of any given species in terms of their genetic, biological, and psychological characteristics

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Genotype

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an organism's genetic make-up

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Phenotype

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outward expression of an organism's genotype; an organism's physical characteristics and behavior

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Competition

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a striving with others who share the same ecological niche for food, mates, and territory

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Genetics

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the study of the genetic make-up of organisms and how it influences their physical and behavioral characteristics

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Heredity

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sum of the traits and tendencies inherited from a person's parents and other biological ancestors.

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DNA

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resembles that of a twisted ladder. strands of sugar and phosphates are connected by rungs made from nucleotide molecules of adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine

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Genes

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small units of DNA that direct the syntheses of proteins and enzymes

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Genome

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total set of genetic material in an organism

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Enzymes

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proteins that regulate the structure of bodily cells and processes occurring within these cells

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Chromosomes

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threadlike structures in the nuclei of living cells; contain genes

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Sex chromosomes

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chromosomes that contain instructional code for the development of male or female sex characteristics

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Autosomes

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chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes

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Meiosis

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form of call division by which the new sperm and ova are formed. chromosomes are randomly rearranged so that the new sperm and ova contain 23 individual chromosomes or half of these found in other body cells

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Alleles

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alternative forms of the same gene

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Dominant trait

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the trait that is exhibited when an individual posses heterozygous alleles

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Recessive trait

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a trait that occurs only when expressed by homozygous alleles

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Mutations

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accidental alteration in the DNA code within a single gene. mutations can either be spontaneous, occurring naturally, or the results of environmental factors such as exposure to high-energy radiation

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Chromosomal aberration

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rearrangement of genes within chromosomes or a change in the total number of chromosomes

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Down syndrome

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a genetic disorder caused by chromosomal alteration, resulting in an extra 21st chromosome. people having Down Syndrome show impairments in physical, psycho motor, and cognitive development

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Huntington's disease

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a genetic disorder caused by a dominant lethal gene in which a person experiences slow but progressive mental and physical deterioration

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Phenylketonuria (PKU)

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genetic disorder cause by a certain pair of homozygous recessive genes and characterized by the inability to break down phenalalenine, an amino acid found in many high protein foods. the resulting high blood levels of phenylalenine cause mental retardation.

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Heritability

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the amount of variability in a given trait in a given population at a given time due to genetic factors

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Behavioural genetics

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the study of genetic influences on behaviour

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Mendelian trait

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trait showing classical dominant, recessive, or sex linked pattern of inheritance. usually dichotomous and are controlled by a single focus

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Non-Mendelian trait

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does not show inheritance pattern described by Mendel. usually polygenic and show continuous variation in the phenotype

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Genetic engineering

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the new scientific discipline of manipulating genetic sequences to alter an organisms genome

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Knockout mutation

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artificially constructed genetic sequence inserted into a gene to inactivate it.

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Genetic marker

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a known DNA sequence that occurs in a particular space in the chromosome

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Concordance research

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research that studies the similarity between twins in traits expressed

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Bipedalism

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the ability to move about in the environment upright and on two feet.

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Cultural evolution

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the adaptive changes in culture in response to environmental changes over time

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Sociobiology

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the study of the genetic basis of social behavior

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Reproductive strategies

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different systems of mating and rearing offspring. these include monogamy, polygamy, polandry, and polygandry

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Monogamy

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the mating of one female and one male

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Polygamy

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the mating of one male with more than one female

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Polygandry

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the mating of one female with more than one male

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Polygynandry

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the mating of several females with several males

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Parental investment

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the resources including time, physical effort, and risks to life that a partner spends in procreation, and in the feeding nurturing and protecting of offspring

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Sexual Selection

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selection for traits specific to sex, such as body size, or particular patterns of behavior

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Altruism

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the unselfish concern of one individual for the welfare of another

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Inclusive fitness

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the reproductive success of those who share common genes

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kin selection

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a type of selection that favours altruistic acts aimed at individuals who share some of the altruist's genes, such as parents, sublings, grandparents, grandchildren, and under certain conditions, or distant relations.

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Reciprocal altruism

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altruism in which people behave altruistically towards one another because they are confident that such acts will be reciprocated toward either them or their kin