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101 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What does bipotentiality of sex differentiation mean?
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-Outcomes of earlier stages do not necessarily determine the direction of development at subsequent stages
-Raw materials to develop in either direction are available at each stage |
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How many chromosomes go humans have?
How many of those are sex chromosomes? |
46
2 |
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What determines chromosomal sex?
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Whether the sperm fertilizing the ovum has an X or Y chromosome
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What is the sex chromosome complement of an individual with Turner syndrome?
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XO
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Do individuals with Turner syndrome have functional gonads?
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No, they are infertile
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When do gonads begin to sex differentiate?
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6 weeks after conception
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What are the two structures that make up the undifferentiated gonad?
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The medulla and the cortex
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Where are primordial germ cells produced and where do they typically migrate to?
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PGCs are produced in the yolk sac and they migrate to the undifferentiated gonad
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What must occur for the undifferentiated gonads to develop into testes?
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-functional Y chromosome w/ SRY gene
-which stimulates an autosome -to produce H-Y antigen -(which stimulates the medulla to develop into testes and the cortex to fade away) |
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What must occur for the undifferentiated gonads to develop into ovaries?
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-Must have migration of the primordial germ cells to the undifferentiated gonad and
-the absence of a functional Y chromosome and -the presence of at least 2 functional X chromosomes- (the medulla fades away and the cortex develops into ovaries) |
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What happens if the primordial germ cells do not migrate?
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-XX individual: the gonads will remain in the undifferentiated state, or become gonadal streaks.
-XY individual: testes will develop (assuming the other conditions are all met). |
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What three things must be present for male internal genitalia to develop?
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-Androgens, Mullerian Inhibiting Factor and Inductor Substance
-Wolffian ducts develop into the epididymus, vas deferens, and seminal vesicle, and the Mullerian ducts recede |
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What structures make up the internal genitalia (internal reproductive plumbing) of males?
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-Epididymis
-vas deferens -seminal vesicles -ejaculatory ducts - tubes |
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What must be present for the female internal genitalia to develop?
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-Absence of androgens,
-Absence of Mullerian Inhibiting Factor and -Absence of Inductor Substance -Mullerian ducts develop into oviducts, uterus, and vagina, and Wolffian ducts recede |
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What structures make up the internal genitalia (internal reproductive plumbing) of females?
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-Uterus,
-oviducts -vagina |
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What factor(s) must be met for male external genitalia to develop?
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-Presence of androgens and the ability to respond to androgens
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What factor(s) must be met for female external genitalia to develop?
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Absence of androgens or the lack of ability to respond to androgens
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Name the three undifferentiated structures of external genitalia and what they form with differentiation in MALES:
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Uro-genital fold -->urethra
Genital tubercle-->penis Labio-scrotal swelling--> scrotum (scrotal sac) |
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Name the three undifferentiated structures of external genitalia and what they form with differentiation in FEMALES:
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Uro-genital fold-->labia minora
Genital tubercle--> clitoris Labio-scrotal swelling---> labia majora |
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What are the three terms for the first half of the menstrual cycle?
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-Proliferative phase (watch out this is not accurate)
-preovulatory phase and -follicular phase |
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When does the proliferative phase start? End??
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It starts at the END OF MENSES and ends at ovulation
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What are the two functions of the ovary?
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-Houses all immature ova that a woman will ever possess
-Houses two sequentially present hormone producing sites |
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Where does implantation of the fertilized ovum usually take place?
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The upper 2/3 of the uterus, the fundus
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Is the preovulatory phase variable or relatively fixed?
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Variable, day 1 to ovulation
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What is the hormone producing site in the ovary prior to ovulation?
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The Graafian or ovarian follicle
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What three hormones does the ovarian follicle produce prior to ovulation?
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-Estrogen,
-androgens, -inhibin |
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When does ovulation occur?
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14 +/- 2 days BEFORE the first day of menses
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Name the four things that are released at ovulation:
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-Follicular fluid,
-corona radiate, -sticky cumulus -the ovum |
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What occurs if the sticky cumulus is not produced?
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The cilia of the fimbria will have a hard time getting the ovum into the lumen of the oviducts
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What does the corona radiata do?
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-Provides nutrients for ovum from ovulation until the ovum is inside the oviduct
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phenomenon in which organs of the peritoneal cavity are irritated by blood released at ovulation which may result in intense pain:
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Mittelschmerz
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What are the three names for the second half of the menstrual cycle?
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-Secretory phase,
-postovulatory phase, -luteal phase |
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Is the length of the postovulatory phase variable or fixed? How long is it?
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Fixed, 14 +/-2 days
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After ovulation, what develops from the remains of the Graafian follicle? This is the hormone producing site of the postovulatory phase
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The corpus luteum
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What color is the corpus luteum?
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yellow
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What occurs in the proliferative phase in terms of the uterus?
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Cells of the endometrium increase in size and number after menses to ovulation
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What occurs during menses in terms of the uterus?
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Endometrium sloughs off and is eliminated in menstruation
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Does menstrual bleeding occur in the follicular of the luteal phase?
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The follicular phase
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What does menstrual fluid consist of?
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-Approximately 2-4 tablespoons of blood,
-cell fragments from the cells of the endometrium, -glandular secretions from endometrial cells and -the unfertilized ovum |
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What occurs in the secretory phase in terms of the uterus?
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Endometrial cells fill with fats and glycogens
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What are prostaglandins and what effect do they have on the uterus?
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-these are paracrines, meaning they act on tissues very close to their site of production. Women with dysmenorrhea (cramps) have very high levels of prostaglandin in their uteri. The prostaglandins are actually stimulating small contractions in their uterine muscles.
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Can any drugs inhibit prostaglandins? If so, which ones? When should they be taken?
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Over the counter drugs like ibuprofen, aspirin and acetaminophen can be taken to inhibit prostaglandin production by the endometrium but must be taken 2-3 days before cramps start in order to stop the release of the hormones.
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What role do prostaglandins play in labor?
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Prostaglandin levels are high during labor and can be used to stimulate labor along with oxytocin
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When does a female have the most ova in her ovary
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Before she is born, 20 weeks after conception (about 7 million)
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Around the time of ovulation, the cells lining the cervix produce what kind of mucus?
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Clear, slippery like raw egg whites and relatively easy for sperm to penetrate
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What is the major hormone produced by the ovarian follicle and by the corpus luteum, respectively?
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Ovarian follicle= estrogen,
corpus luteum= progesterone |
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What are the hair-like cells on the fimbria that help transport the ovum into the lumen of the fallopian tube?
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Cilia
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Which has the narrower lumen, the ampulla or the isthmus of the oviduct?
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The isthmus
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Where does fertilization usually occur?
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The ampulla-isthmus junction of the oviduct
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How long does it take for the ovum to move from the wall of the ovary to the ampulla-isthmus junction of the oviduct?
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Just minutes
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How long does the ovum stay at the ampulla-isthmus junction?
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2-2.5 days
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How long is the ovum most capable of being fertilized?
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24 hours after ovulation
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How long can sperm survive after ejaculation?
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2-3 days
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When are vaginal fluids the most acidic?
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After menarche and before menopause
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What are the corpora cavernosa?
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Specialized erectile tissue located in the clitoris which engorge with blood during sexual stimulation
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Is the penis or the clitoris more sensitive to touch? Why?
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The clitoris due to the same amount of nerve endings as the penis being densely packed into a smaller area
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What is the perineum?
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The very sensitive area of tissue between the vaginal opening and the anus
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Are men or women more likely to get bladder infections? Why?
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Women because their urethra is shorter
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Are the labia majora or the labia minora covered in sweat and sebaceous glands?
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Both the labia minora and the inside of the labia majora
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Do the labia minora increase in size during sexual excitement?
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Yes, up to three times their original size
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What is the mucus like that the cervix produces when estrogen levels are lower?
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Thick and pasty like partially dry Elmer’s glue
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What structures of the vagina serve as pooling places for sperm and semen and also serve as shock absorbers during sexual intercourse?
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The fornices
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What structure forms when the labia minora meet at the front?
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The prepuce of the clitoris
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During childbirth, what procedure cuts the perineum?
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An episiotomy
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What is an ectopic pregnancy?
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A pregnancy in which the embryo develops anywhere except the upper portion of the uterus
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How do the ligaments holding the ovaries in place respond to changing estrogen levels?
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the higher the estrogen level, the more they contract and relax to jiggle the ovaries
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What is endometriosis
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An illness that occurs when endometrial tissue grows somewhere outside of the uterus
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Is the vagina sensitive to pain?
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Relatively no, that is why surgery on the vagina usually does not require anesthesia
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What is the Grafenburg spot?
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Otherwise known as the G spot, this is a small highly sensitive region of the vaginal wall of some women. It has a spongy and striated texture. Stimulation can result in ejaculation of fluids through the urethral opening
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Where does vagina lubrication during sexual excitement come from?
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Comes from interstitial fluid forced from between cells of the vaginal lining when blood vessels in the region enlarge by engorging with blood during sexual excitement
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What is the mons pubis
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A mound of fat and connective tissue on the pubic bone, covered with hair after puberty. Marks the front of the vulva
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What are the Bulbs of the Vestibule
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Specialized erectile tissue located in the labia majora that engorge with blood in sexual excitement
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Can the thickness and vascularization of the hymen vary from woman to woman?
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yes
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What is totally sealed hymen without an opening called?
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An imperforate hymen
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What do the Glands of Bartholin do
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Thought to play some role in vaginal lubrication
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What are differences in breast size between women usually due to?
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Amount of adipose tissue or connective fat
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What are the structures within the breast in which milk is stored momentarily before letdown?
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sinuses
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What are the Montgomery glands and what do they do?
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The Montgomery glands are glands on the areola of the breast that secrete antibacterial substances during breast feeding that both lubricate the nipple and reduce the risk of breast infections.
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What happens to the color of the areola during and after pregnancy?
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The areola darkens with pregnancy and stays dark afterwards
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What do endocrine glands produce?
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hormones
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What are the reproductive actions of estrogen?
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-Proliferation of the endometrium during the follicular phase of the monthly cycle
-Build up of mammary tissue in the breast during the luteal phase and during pregnancy -Addition of muscle cells to the uterus during pregnancy |
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What are the non-reproductive system actions of estrogen?
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-Decreases fat storage
-Increases general activity level -Decreases food intake -Softens skin and maintains skin resilience -Increases bone development and retains calcium in bones -Maintains stability of blood pressure |
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What are the target tissues of estrogen and progesterone?
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Every cell of the body
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What are the reproductive actions of progesterone?
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-Increases fats and glycogens in endometrial cells
-Increase mammary gland development -Inhibits coordinated contractions of the uterus |
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What are the non-reproductive actions of progesterone?
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-reverses estrogens suppression of fat storage
-Increases food intake and appetite -Decreases coordinated contractions of smooth muscle throughout the body -Maintains stability of blood pressure -Increases sleepiness |
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How are hormones transported to the posterior pituitary?
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Axons carry hormones produced by cell bodies located in the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary
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What is the major difference between an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland?
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While an exocrine gland is ducted, an endocrine gland is a ductless gland that discharges hormones directly into the bloodstream and the released hormones are transported long distances through the blood to their target tissue where they act.
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What are the two simultaneously present endocrine glands of the pituitary gland?
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-The posterior pituitary
-The anterior pituitary |
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Do the anterior and posterior pituitary glands directly communicate with each other?
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no
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What is the tissue that connects the hypothalamus to the pituitary?
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The infindibulum
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Does the posterior pituitary produce hormones?
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No! It only RELEASES hormones that are produced in the hypothalamus
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What are the two hypothalamic nuclei that produce hormones released by the posterior pituitary?
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-Paraventricular nucleus
-Supraoptic nucleus |
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What hormone does the paraventricular nucleus produce?
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oxytocin
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What hormone does the supraoptic nucleus produce?
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Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) or Vasopressin
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What are the two things that oxytocin does?
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-Stimulates milk letdown during breast feeding
-Stimulates contractions of the uterus |
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What is the primary stimulus for oxytocin release?
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Sucking of the breast sends a neural signal to the hypothalamus
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Are oxytocin levels high or low during labor?
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High, but we do not know if a high level of oxytocin causes labor or is a result of labor
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What is a synthetic oxytocin that can be used to stimulate labor?
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Pitocin
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What does ADH/Vasopressin do?
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-Promotes the retention of water by blocking water loss in urine
-Increases blood pressure, vasoconstrictor |
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What are some inhibitors of ADH/Vasopressin?
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Caffeine and alcohol
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Explain how hormones are produced in the hypothalamus and released in the posterior pituitary
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a) Cell bodies in the hypothalamus (specifically the paraventricular nucleus and the supraoptic nucleus) produce the hormone (oxytocin and ADH/ Vasopressin), they leave the cell bodies, travel down the cell axons through the infindibulum and then terminate in the posterior pituitary where those hormones are released into the pituitary and then into the blood stream where they act on their target tissue
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