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143 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
consciousness
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everything of which we are aware at any given time
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circadian rhythms
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-the regular fluctuation from high to low points over 24 hours
-sleep/wakefulness cycle -daily fluctuation in body temperature (active when high, sleep when low) |
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suprachiasmatic nucleus
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-located in brain's hypothalamus
-SCN for short -biological clock that controls circadian rhythms as well as other kinds of timekeeping mechanisms in the brain -sunlight also plays a part, travels along optic nerve to SCN, then to pineal gland, which releases melatonin |
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-subjective night
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-time in a 24 hour period where bio clock is telling you to go to sleep
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polysomnograms
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-sleep disorders
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sleep stages
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1)
-transition between sleep and waking -some alpha waves 2) -sleep spindles (alternating periods of calm and intense activity) -transitioning to deeper sleep 3) -20% delta waves (slowest waves) 4) -more than 50% delta waves, may reach 100% -deepest sleep -hardest to awaken -40 minutes, then go back through stage 3, stage 2, and enter REM (10-15 minutes) -no more stage 4 sleep after 2 cycles, alternate between stage 2 and REM, REM gets longer and longer (last one 30-40 minutes) |
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beta waves
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-occur when awake
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sleep cycles
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-about 5 per night, 90 minutes each
-4 stages and REM |
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parasomnias
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-awake behaviors happen during sleep
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somnambulism
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-sleepwalking
-occurs during a partial arousal from stage 4 sleep |
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somniloquy
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-sleeptalking
-can occur in any stage -nonsensical words and phrases |
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sleep terrors
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-occur during stage 4
-often begin with piercing scream -sleeper springs up in a state of panic -resolve quickly, can go back to sleep |
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nightmares
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-occur during REM
-can awaken to full consciousness during a nightmare and remember everything -most often occur in early morning hours when REM is longest |
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dyssomnias
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-sleep disorders that impair the timing, quality or quantity of sleep
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narcolepsy
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-dyssomnia
-excessive daytime sleepiness -uncontrollable attacks of REM sleep that can last for10-20 minutes -caused by brain abnormality in the part of the brain that regulates sleep -genetic -dogs have it too, learn from them |
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sleep apnea
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-dyssomnia
-mostly overweight men -periods of sleep where breathing stops, and must wake up to breathe -daytime sleepiness -snoring/snorting -can lead to chronic high blood pressure, heart problems, death, mild brain damage -can treat by surgically modifying upper airway |
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REM dreams
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-vivid story-like dreams, occur continuously
-rational prefrontal cortex suppressed -memory areas also suppressed |
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NREM dreams
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-less frequent/memorable
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what causes bizarre dreams
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-when awake, inhibiting influences maintained by cortical neurons receiving serotonin and norepinephrine control the cerebral cortex and keep us "sane".
-these neurotransmitters are far less plentiful during REM sleep -higher level of dopamine, more "psychotic". |
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manifest content
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-content of the dream as recalled by the dreamer
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latent content
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-underlying meaning of the dream
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cognitive theory of dreaming
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-dreaming is simply thinking while asleep
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cocaine
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-euphoric mood
-energy boost -excitement -decreased appetite -same withdrawals as amphetamines |
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alcohol
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-first few drinks stimulate and enliven while lowering inhibitions and anxiety
-higher doses have a sedative effect -slow reaction time -impairs motor control and perceptual ability -can cause tremors, nausea, sweating, depression, weakness, irritability, sometimes hallucinations |
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barbiturates
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-promote sleep
-calming sedative effect -decrease muscular tension -impair coordination and reflexes -can cause sleeplessness, anxiety, seizures, cardiovascular collapse, and death |
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tranquilizers (Xanax, Valium)
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-lower anxiety
-calming sedative effect -decrease muscular tension -can cause restlessness, anxiety, irritability, muscle tension, difficulty sleeping |
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narcotics
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-relieve pain
-produce paralysis of intestines -can cause nausea, diarrhea, cramps, insomnia |
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marijuana
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-euphoria
-relaxation -affects ability to store new memories -anxiety -difficulty sleeping -decreased appetite -hyperactivity |
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LSD
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-excited exhilaration
-hallucinations -experiences perceived as insightful and profound |
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MDMA (ecstasy)
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-euphoria
-experience of understanding others and accepting them -lowers inhibitions -can cause overheating, dehydration, nausea, jaw clenching, eye twitching, dizziness -can cause depression, fatigue, a "crash" where person feels annoyed, sad, or scared. |
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psychoactive drug
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-any substance that alters mood, perception, or thought
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substance abuse
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-continued use of a substance after negative affects
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physical drug dependence
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-drug tolerance
-compulsive pattern of drug use |
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withdrawal symptoms
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-usually opposite of drug effect
-physical or psychological |
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psychological drug dependenced
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-craving for drug's pleasurable effects
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stimulants
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-uppers
-speed up activity in the central nervous system -supress appetite -can make a person feel more awake, alert, energetic -increase pulse/breathing rate and blood pressure -reduce cerebral blood flow -high doses can cause people to feel nervous, jittery, and restless |
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depressants
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-downers
-decrease activity in the central nervous system -slow down bodily functions -reduce sensitivity to outside stimulation -sedative hypnotics (alcohol, barbiturates, mild tranquilizers) -narcotics (opiates) -NEVER TAKE TOGETHER, exponential increase in effects |
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learning
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-a relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, capability, or attitude
-acquired through experience and cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or maturation. |
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classical conditioning
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-an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another
-pavlovian conditioning -respondent conditioning |
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stimulus
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--any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds
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unconditioned response
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-a response coming from an unconditioned stimulus w/out prior learning
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unconditioned stimulus
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-any stimulus (food) that will bring about an unconditioned response
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conditioned stimulus
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-after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes associated with it, and creates a conditioned response
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conditioned response
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-a learned response that is elicited from a conditioned stimulus as a result of its repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus
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higher order conditioning
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-a neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus just from pairing it with a previously acquired conditioned stimulus. (steps leading up to shot)
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extinction
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-weakening of the conditioned response
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spontaneous recovery
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-reappearance of extinguished response in a weaker form following the resting period
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generalization
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-the tendency to make a conditioned response to a similar stimulus
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discrimination
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-the learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli so that the conditioned response occurs only to the original conditioned stimuli
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biological predisposition
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-genetically programmed tendency to acquire classically conditioned fear responses to potentially life-threatening stimuli
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law of effect
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-the positive or negative effect of the response will determine whether you are likely to respond in the same way in the future or not.
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operant conditioning
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-a type of learning in which the consequences are manipulated to increase or decrease the frequency of the existing response, or to shape an entirely new response
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operant
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-voluntary behavior that accidentally brings about some sort of consequence
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reinforcer
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-a consequence that increases the frequency of the operant
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primary reinforcer
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-fulfills a basic physical need for survival
-does not involve learning |
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secondary reinforcer
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-acquired or learned through association with other reinforcers
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schedules of reinforcement
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-systematic processes for administering reinforcement
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fixed ratio schedule
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-reinforcement is given after a fixed number of correct, non-reinforced responses (paid farm workers for # of bushels of fruit)
-high response rate -steady response with low ratio -brief pause after each reinforcement with very high ratio -the higher the ratio, the more resistance to extinction |
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variable ratio schedule
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-reinforcer is provided after a varying # of non reinforced responses based on an average ratio
-behaviors highly resistible to extinction -partial reinforcement effect (ipod shuffling, hunting, fishing, slot machines) -highest response rate -constant response pattern, no pauses -most resistance to extinction |
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partial reinforcement effect
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-the typical outcome of a variable ratio of reinforcement in which a slow rate of learning is paired with resistance to extinction
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fixed interval schedule
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-reinforcement is given following the first correct response after a specific period of time has elapsed
(people on salary rather than hourly rate, causes scalloping) -lowest response rate -long pause after reinforcement, followed by gradual acceleration -the longer the interval, the more resistance to extinction |
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variable interval schedule
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-a reinforcer is given after the first correct response following a varying time of nonreinforced responses based on an average time.
(random drug testing) -moderate response rate -stable, uniform response -more resistance to extinction than fixed-interval schedule with same average interval |
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shaping
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-gradually molding a desired behavior (response) by reinforcing any movement in the direction of the desired response, gradually guides the responses toward the ultimate goal
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successive approximations
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-a series of gradual steps, each of which is more similar to the final desired response
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discriminative stimulus
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- as stimulus that signals whether a certain response of behavior is likely to be rewarded, ignored, or punished (parents smiling/frowning)
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positive punishment
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-rat stops pressing lever when it makes an annoying sound
-removal of a pleasant stimulus, or addition of an unpleasant stimulus -decreases behavior |
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negative punishment
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-a behavior decreases after the removal of a consequence
-loss of something desirable -teen stops coming home late after cell phone is taken away |
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avoidance learning
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-learning to avoid events or conditions associated with aversive consequences or phobias
(drinking and driving=death) |
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learned helplessness
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-a passive resignation to aversive conditions, learned by repeated exposure to aversive events that are inescapable or unavoidable
(give up and react to disappointment in life by becoming inactive, withdrawn, and depressed) |
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biofeedback
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-use of sensitive equipment to give people precise feedback about internal physiological processes so that they can learn to exercise control over them.
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behavior modification
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-method of changing behavior through a systematic program based on the learning principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning
-insurance companies for cars |
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token economy
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-a program that motivates socially desirable behavior by reinforcing it with tokens that may later be exchanged for desired items and privileges (candy, free time)
-used in mental hospitals/prisons |
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cognitive processes
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-thinking, knowing, problem solving, remembering, forming mental representations
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insight
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-sudden realization of the relationship between elements in a problem situation which makes the solution apparent
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latent learning
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-learning can occur w/out apparent reinforcement and not be demonstrated until the organism is motivated to do so
-learn more in a video game each time you play, whether you win or not |
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observational learning
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-learning by imitation
-slowing down when you see someone get a speeding ticket - |
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model
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-person who demonstrates a behavior or whose behavior is imitated
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avoidance learning
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-learning to avoid events or conditions associated with aversive consequences or phobias
(drinking and driving=death) |
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learned helplessness
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-a passive resignation to aversive conditions, learned by repeated exposure to aversive events that are inescapable or unavoidable
(give up and react to disappointment in life by becoming inactive, withdrawn, and depressed) |
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biofeedback
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-use of sensitive equipment to give people precise feedback about internal physiological processes so that they can learn to exercise control over them.
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behavior modification
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-method of changing behavior through a systematic program based on the learning principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning
-insurance companies for cars |
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token economy
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-a program that motivates socially desirable behavior by reinforcing it with tokens that may later be exchanged for desired items and privileges (candy, free time)
-used in mental hospitals/prisons |
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cognitive processes
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-thinking, knowing, problem solving, remembering, forming mental representations
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insight
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-sudden realization of the relationship between elements in a problem situation which makes the solution apparent
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latent learning
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-learning can occur w/out apparent reinforcement and not be demonstrated until the organism is motivated to do so
-learn more in a video game each time you play, whether you win or not |
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observational learning
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-learning by imitation
-slowing down when you see someone get a speeding ticket - |
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model
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-person who demonstrates a behavior or whose behavior is imitated
-parents, movie stars, etc |
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4 processes that determine whether observational learning will occur
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1)attention
2)retention (store in memory) 3)reproduction (observer must be physically and cognitively capable of performing the behavior to learn it) 4)reinforcement (must be motivated to practice/perform the behavior on his/her own) |
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modeling effect
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-learning a new behavior from a model through the acquisition of new responses
-learn to solve a math problem from a teacher's demonstration |
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facilitation effect
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-observer learns a behavior similar to that shown by a model in an unfamiliar situation
-watch gifted athletes and artists perform and try to imitate them |
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inhibitory effect
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-tendency of observers to suppress socially unacceptable behaviors for which they see models punished
-slowing down when you see a fellow motorist getting a speeding ticket |
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disinhibitory effect
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-observer will display the same behavior because the model did so without receiving punishment
-surfing the internet cause you see coworkers not getting punished for it |
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concept
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-a mental category used to represent a class/group of objects, people, organizations, events, situations, or relations that share similar characteristics
(furniture, tree, student, college, wedding) |
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formal concept
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-concept that is clearly defined by a set of rules, a formal definition, or a classification system
-equilateral triangle definition |
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natural concepts
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-concepts acquired through everyday experiences and perceptions
-fruit, vegetable, bird |
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prototype
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-an example that embodies the most common and typical features of a concept
-bird prototype=robin or sparrow, not turkey or penguin |
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exemplars
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-individual examples of a concept that are stored in memory from experiences
-if you work with penguins every day you would include them in your prototype of birds |
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elimination by aspects
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-decision making approach
-alternatives to be avaluated are ofdered from most important to least important -apt searching, imp. to not go over budget, not as imp. to have two baths. |
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hueristic
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-rules of thumb derived from experience and used in decision making and problem solving, even though there is no guarantee of accuracy or usefulness
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availability hueristic
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-probability of an event correspponds to the ease with which the even comes to mind
-leave home early to avoid traffic jam cause got stuck last time |
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representativeness heuristic
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-decision strat based on how closely a new situatin resembles a familiar one
-going out with someone you just met based on how much the person resembles someone else you know |
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recognition heuristic
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-strat in which decision making process terminates as soon as a factor that moves one toward a decision has been recognized
-women voting -arnold |
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framing
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-the way info is presented so as to emphasize either a potential gain or a potential loss as the outcome
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intuition
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-rapidly formed judgements based on gut feelings or instincts
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problem solving
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-the thoughts and actions required to achieve a desired goal not readily attainable
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analogy hueristic
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-rule of thumb that involves comparing a problem to others you have encountered in the past
-if strategy A worked, then will work again |
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working backwards
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-starts with the solution, a known condition, and works back through the problem
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means-end analysis
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-current position is compared with a desired goal
-a series of steps are formulated and then taken to close the gap between thetwo -term paper broken down into steps |
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algorithm
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-systematic problem-solving strategy that always leads to a correct solution if applied appropriately
-area of a rectangle formula |
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functional fixedness
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the failure to use familiar objects in novel ways to solve problems because of a tendency to see objects only in terms of their customary functions
-don't consider using a fork as a brush like seagul |
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mental set
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-mental rut in ones approach to solving problems
-tendency to continue to use the same method even though another approach might be better -new way to jillian's house |
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confirmation bias
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-the tendency to selectively pay attention to informatin that confirms preexisting beliefs about the best way to solve a problem
-ignore data that contradicts them -rebooting computer over and over to try and fix |
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artificial neural networks
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-ANNs
-programs designed to mimic human brain functioning |
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expert systems
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-computer programs designed to carry out highly specific functions within a limited domain
-program used by physicians to diagnose blood diseases and meningitis -better as assistants to humans |
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language
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-a means of communicating thoughts and feelings using a system of socially shared but arbitrary symbols arranged according to rules of grammar
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psycholinguistics
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-study of how language is acquired, produced, and used and how the sounds and symbols of language are translated into meaning
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phonemes
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-the smallest units of sounds in a spoken language
-b or s -also combinations of letters that form particular sounds, like th and ch |
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morphemes
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-smallest units of meaning
-I, a, -s ending makes plural, book, word, learn, reason, re, -ed ending |
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syntax
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-the aspect of grammar that speifies the rules for arranging and combinging words to form phrases and sentences
-adjectives come before nouns in english |
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semantics
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-the meaning derived from morphemes, words, and sentences.
-i don't mind and mind your manners are different |
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pragmatics
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-aspects of language such as intonation, the riseing and falling patterns that are usedto express meaningt, questins, etc
-when pigs fly |
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linguistic relativity hypothesis
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-benjamin whorf
-the language a person speaks largely determines the nature of that person's thoughts -rosch's color study defeated it |
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intelligence
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-an indicidual's ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles by taking thought
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g factor
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-spearman
-a general ability that underlies all intellectual functions |
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primary mental abilities
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-thurstone
-7 of them -verbal comp, numerical, spatial relations, perceptual speed, words fluency, memory, reasoning |
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theory of multiple intelligences
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-gardner
-eight frames of mind/independent forms of intelligence -linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, existential |
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triarchic theory of intelligence
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-sternberg
-three types of intelligence 1)componential (analytical) 2)experiential (creative) 3)contextual (practical) |
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achievement test
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-tests that measure knowledge and skills that a person has acquired through experiences such as formal education up to the point at which the test is taken
-grade standards |
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aptitude tests
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-norm-referenced tests taht are designed to predict a person's probable achievement or performance in a particular setting or in reference to a specific task at some future time
-sat, act, asvab |
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intelligence test
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-measure of general intellectual ability
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reliability of test
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-ability to consistently score the same when the same person is tested and retested
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validity of a test
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-ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure
-thermo ok for temp but not weighing |
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standardization
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-standard procedures for administering and scoring the test
-same directions, time, etc |
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norms
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-age based averages or standards based on the test scores of a large number of individuals and used as bases for comparison
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IQ
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-stern's concept
-stanford-binet intelligence scale revised by terman -ages 2 to 23 only -has been revised 5 times |
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david wechsler
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-made new test for 16 and over
-based on how much an individual deviated from the average score fdor adults |
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mental retardation
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-IQ below 70
-have a severe deficiency in everyday adaptive functioning, the ability to care for themselves and relate to others |
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inclusion
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-educating students with mental retardation in regular schools.
-also called mainstreaming -may in volve placing students in classes with nonhandicapped students for part of the day or in special classrooms in regular schools |
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nature nurture debate
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-galton started it
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heritability
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-an index of the ddegree to which a characteristic is estimated to be influenced by heredity
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emotional intelligence
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-the ability to apply knowledge about emotions to everyday life
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creative problem solving process
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1)preparation (searching for info)
2)incubation (digesting info) 3)illumination (being suddenly struck by right solution) 4)translation (transforming the insight into useful information) |
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divergent thinking
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-the ability to produce multiple ideas answers, orsolutions to a problem for which there ris no agreed on solution
novel original flexible opposite of convergent thinking |