Psych101 Chapter 6/7

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acquisition

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refers to the initial stage of learning something

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antecedents

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events that typically precede the target

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avoidance learning

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when an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation

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behaviour modification

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changing behaviour through the application of the principles of conditioning

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behavioural contract

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a written agreement outlining a promise to adhere to the contingencies of a behaviour modification program

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classical conditioning

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type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus

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conditioned reinforcers

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events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers

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conditioned response (CR)

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a learned reaction to a CS due to previous conditioning

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conditioned stimulus (CS)

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a previously neutral stimulus that evokes a CR

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conditioning

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learning associations between events that occur in an organism's environment

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continuous reinforment

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when every instance of a designated response is reinforced

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cumulative recorder

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graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a 'Skinner Box' as a function of time

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discriminative stimuli

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cues that influence operant behaviour by indicating probable consequences of a response

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elicit

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drawn forth

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emit

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send forth

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escape learning

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when an organism requires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation

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extinction

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gradual weakening, or disappearance of a CR tendency

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fixed interval (FI) schedule

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reinforcer is given for the 1st response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elasped

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fixed ratio (FR) schedule

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reinforcer is given after a fixed number of non-reinforced responses

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higher-order conditioning

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conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an UCS

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instinctive drift

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when an animal's innate response tendencies interfere w/ conditioning processes

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instrumental learning

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also known as 'operant conditioning'

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intermittent/partial reinforcement

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when a designated response is only reinforced some of the time

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law of effect

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if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, association btwn the stimulus & response is strengthened

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learning

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durable change in behaviour/knowledge due to experience

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mirror neurons

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are activated by performing an action or by seeing another person perform the same action ex. smiling

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negative reinforcement

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response is strengthened b/c it is followed by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus

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observational learning

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response is influenced by the observation of others

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operant chamber (Skinner Box)

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small enclosure where an animal makes specific responses that are recorded while the consequences are controlled

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operant conditioning

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form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences (instrumental learning)

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pavlovian conditioning

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also referred to as classical conditioning

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phobias

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irrational fears of objects or situations

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positive reinforcement

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when a response is strengthened b/c it is followed by a rewarding stimulus

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preparedness

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species-specific predisposition to be conditioned in certain ways

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primary reinforcers

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events that are inherently reinforcing b/c they satisfy biological needs

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punishment

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when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response

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reinforcement

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when an event following a response strengthens the tendency to make that response

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reinforcement contingencies

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circumstances that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers

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resistance to extinction

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when an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated

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schedule of reinforcement

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determines which occurrences of a specific response result in the presentation of a reinforcer

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secondary reinforcers

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events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated w/ primary reinforcers

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shaping

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consists of the reinforcement of closer & closer approx. of a desired response

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spontaneous recovery

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reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non-exposure to the conditioned response

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stimulus discrimination

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organism has learned a response and doesn't response differently to a new stimulus

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stimulus generalization

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organism has learned a response and responds the same to a new stimulus

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token economy

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system doling out symbolic reinforcers that are exchanged later for a variety of genuine reinforcers

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trial

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consists of any presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli

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unconditioned response (UCR)

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unlearned reaction to an UCS that occurs w/o previous conditioning

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unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

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evokes an UCR w/o previous conditioning

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variable-interval (VI) schedule

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reinforcer is given for the 1st response after a variable time interval has elapsed

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variable-ratio (VR) schedule

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reinforcer is given after a variable number of non-reinforced responses

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anterograde amnesia

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loss of memories for events that occur after the onset of amnesia

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attention

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focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events

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chunking

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grouping of familiar stimuli & stored as a single unit

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clustering

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remembering similar/related items in groups

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conceptual hierarchy

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multi-level classification system based on common properties among items

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connectionist/parallel distributed processing (PDP) models

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assume that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks

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consolidation

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gradual conversion of info into durable memory codes stored in long-term memory

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decay theory

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proposes that forgetting occurs b/c memory traces fade w/ time

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declarative memory system

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handles factual information (names, dates, faces, events, ideas etc.)

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dual-coding theory

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memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes (leads to recall)

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elaboration

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linking a stimulus to other info at the time of encoding

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encoding

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forming a memory code

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encoding specificity principle

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the value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code

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episodic memory system

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made up of chronological, or temporarily dated, recollections of personal experiences

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explicit memory

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intentional recollection of previous experiences

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flashbulb memories

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unusually vivid/detailed recollections of momentous events

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forgetting curve

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graphs retention and forgetting over time

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hindsight bias

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tendency to mould out interpretation of the past to fit how events actually turned out

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implicit memory

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apparent when retention is exhibited on a task that does not require intentional remembering

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interference theory

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people forget info b/c of competition from other material

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keyword method

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association of a concrete word with an abstract word & generate an image to represent it

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levels of processing theory

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deeper levels of processing result in longer lasting memory codes

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link method

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forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together

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long-term memory (LTM)

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unlimited capacity store that can hold info over lengthy periods

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long-term potentiation (LTP)

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long lasting increase in neural excitability @ synapses along a specific neural pathway

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method of loci

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taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where items to be remembered are associated w/ location

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misinformation effect

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when recall of an event is altered by introducing misleading post-event info

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mnemonic devices

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methods used to recall information

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non-declarative (procedural) memory system

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memory of actions, skills, operations, and conditioned responses

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overlearning

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continued rehearsal of material after you first appear to have mastered it

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proactive interference

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when previously learned info interferes w/ the retention of new info

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prospective memory

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remembering to perform actions in the future

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reality monitoring

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process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources or internal sources

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recall

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measure of retention requires subjects to reproduce info on their own w/o any cues

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recognition

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measure of retention requires subjects to select previously learned info from an array of options

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rehearsal

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process of repetitively verbalizing/thinking about the info

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relearning

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measure of retention requires a subject to memorize info a second time to determine how much time or how many practice trials are saved by having learned it before

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repression

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keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious

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retention

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the proportion of material remembered

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retrieval

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recovering info from memory stores

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retroactive interference

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when new info impairs the retention of previously learned info

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retrograde amnesia

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loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia

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retrospective memory

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involves remembering events from the past or previously learned info

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schema

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a conceptual framework a person uses to make sense of the world

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self-referent encoding

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deciding how or whether info is personally relevant

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semantic memory system

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contains general knowledge that is not tied to the time when the info was learned

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semantic network

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consists of nodes representing concepts, joined by pathways to link related concepts

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sensory memory

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preserves info in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only for a fraction of a second

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serial-position effect

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when subjects show better recall for items @ the beginning & end of a list than for items in the middle

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short-term memory (STM)

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limited-capacity storage than can maintain unrehearsed info for up to ~20s

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source-monitoring

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process of making attributions about the origins of memories

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source-monitoring error

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when a memory derived from one source misattributed to another source

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storage

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maintaining encoded info in memory over time

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tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

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temporary inability to remember something you know

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transfer-appropriate processing

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when the initial processing of info is similar to the type of processing required by the subsequent measure of retention