Psych Test Chapters 4-6

Front 1

Light

Back 1

A form of electromagnetic energy
-Vary in amplitude(perception of brightness) and wavelength(perception of color)

Front 2

What are the three properties of light?

Back 2

hue, brightness, purity

Front 3

how do we perceive hue?

Back 3

aka color
-the wavelength of light

Front 4

how do we perceive brightness?

Back 4

the amplitude of a light wave

Front 5

how do we perceive purity?

Back 5

saturation... which is the ratio of the dominant wavelength to other wavelengths in the color

Front 6

Lens

Back 6

-a transparent eye structure that focuses the light rays falling on the retina
-made up of relatively soft tissue, which is capable of accomodation, which is when your lens changes shape depending on what you are looking at.
far away objects= lens flattens
close up objects= lens gets fatter

Front 7

Iris

Back 7

colored layer of muscle around the pupil

Front 8

pupil

Back 8

-the opening at the center of the iris that helps regulate the amount of light passing into the rear chamber of the eye
-when it constricts it lets less light in the eye, but sharpens the image
-when it dialates it lets more light in but things are blurrier

Front 9

Retina

Back 9

-the neural tissue lining the inside back surface of the eye.
-absorbs light, processes images, and sends visual information to the brain
-a piece of the cns
-paper thin sheet of neural tissue
-only 10% of light that enters the eye actually makes it to receptors

Front 10

rods

Back 10

specialized visual receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision
-more sensitive to dim light
-are more numerous in the peripheral areas of the retina

Front 11

cones

Back 11

-specialized visual receptors that play a key role in day vision and color vision
-provide better sharpness and detail than rods
-concentrated mostly in the center of the retina

Front 12

fovea

Back 12

a tiny spot in the center of the retina that contains only cones
-visual activity is greatest at this spot

Front 13

additive color mixing

Back 13

when three primary lights are mixed additively you get white
-"white light" is white because it contains an even balance of all wavelengths

Front 14

subtractive color mixing

Back 14

when three primary pigments are mixed subtractively you get black
-pigments such as those found in paint absorb most light, reflecting back specific wavelengths

Front 15

color vision

Back 15

-we can discriminate between around a million different colors
-most colors we see are a mixture of different light wavelengths being reflected on an object

Front 16

what are the two theories of color vision?

Back 16

1. trichromatic theory
2. opponent-process theory

Front 17

trichromatic theory

Back 17

-young-helmholtz theory
-proposes that our eyes contain three different types of color receptors
-these receptors respond differently to different wavelengths of visible light.
-respond to the three primary colors red, green, and blue

Front 18

problems with the tri chromatic theory

Back 18

1. most people have difficulty describing all colors with red, blue, and green-most people need to use yellow
2. cannot explain complementary afterimage

Front 19

complimentary afterimage?

Back 19

a visual stimulus that persists after a stimulus is removed

Front 20

opponent-process theory

Back 20

proposed that there are three opponent receptor channels
-black vs white, red vs green, blue vs yellow
-responses to one color of an opponent channel are antagonistic to those of the other color

Front 21

perception

Back 21

-our perception of the world is subjective

Front 22

visual illusion

Back 22

discrepancy between the appearance of a visual stimulus and its physical reality

Front 23

perceptual hypothesis

Back 23

an inference about what form could be responsible for a pattern of sensory stimulation
-context often guides our perceptual hypotheses
-are experience based
-what we see, hear, and otherwise perceive involves making guesses about what out there is most likely responsible for a pattern of sensory stimulation
-how we process sensory information, our expectations, learning, and various environmental cues can affect the accuracy of our guesses
-aka principal of maximum likelyhood
-most of the time, our guesses are correct
-expectations influence what we see!

Front 24

feature detection

Back 24

-by hubel && Wiesel- won the 1981 nobel prize for physiology/medicine
-discovered feature detecting cells in the visual cortex that fired in response to specific cells
-believed we are hard wired to to respond to the world in different ways
-did their experiments on cats

Front 25

bottom up

Back 25

a progression from individual elements to the whole

Front 26

top down

Back 26

a progression from the whole to individual elements
-reading is a top down process

Front 27

top down vs bottom up

Back 27

if we have previously seen something when we see it again we usually use top down processing, but if it is new we usually use bottom up to try to decipher what it is

Front 28

perceptual consistency

Back 28

a tendency to experience a stable perception in the face of continually changing sensory imput

Front 29

shape consistency

Back 29

the perceived shape of objects remains constant

Front 30

size consistency

Back 30

the perceived size of objects remains constant
-while we know the size isn't changing, it looks like it is.

Front 31

expectations && environmental cues

Back 31

perceptual set- is a readiness to perceive a stimulus in a particular way
environmental cues: context can influence perception

Front 32

depth perception

Back 32

involves interpretation of visual cues that indicate how near or far away objects are

Front 33

binocular cues

Back 33

clues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes
-the principal binocular depth cue is retinal disparity

Front 34

retinal disparity

Back 34

refers to the fact the objects within 25 feet project images to slightly different locations on the right and left retinas. so the right and left eyes see slightly different views of the object

Front 35

monocular cues

Back 35

clues about distance based on the image in either eye alone
1.the result of active use of the eye in viewing the world
2. pictorial depth cues

Front 36

pictorial depth cues

Back 36

cues about distance that can be given in a flat picture
1.linear perspective
2.texture gradients
3.interposition
4.relative size
5.height in plane
6. light in shadow

Front 37

circadian rhythm

Back 37

-24 hour biological cycle
affects:
-fluctuations in body temperature
-hormone secretion
-blood pressure
-urine production && many other physical functions
-linked to night-day patterns

Front 38

adaptive function

Back 38

-reduction of exposure to predators
-conservation/restoration of energy

Front 39

electroencephalograph

Back 39

eeg, brain electrical activity

Front 40

electromyograph

Back 40

muscle activity

Front 41

electrooculograph

Back 41

eye movements

Front 42

electrocardiograph

Back 42

heart activity

Front 43

other methods of sleep research

Back 43

observation, participant self report, sleep studies

Front 44

stage 1 sleep

Back 44

-1-7 minutes
-EEG pattern "theta" waves
-hypnotic jerks, hypogogic images

Front 45

stage 2 sleep

Back 45

-10-25 minutes
-mixed EEG
-sleep spindles present

Front 46

Stages 3 && 4

Back 46

-30 minutes
-EEG slow delta waves
-cycles back through stages 1, 2 and 3

Front 47

stage 5 sleep

Back 47

REM sleep
-initially a few minutes
-gets progressively longer, maxing at about 40 minutes towards the end of the night
-EEG similar to awake EEG
-eyes move
-muscles paralyzed
-dreaming

Front 48

beta waves

Back 48

13-24 cps
normal waking thought, alert problem solving

Front 49

alpha waves

Back 49

8-12 cps
deep relaxation, blank mind, meditation

Front 50

theta waves

Back 50

4-7 bps
light sleep

Front 51

delta waves

Back 51

less than 4 cps
deep sleep

Front 52

effects of sleep deprivation

Back 52

-we show a rebound effect when we are deprived of REM and slow wave sleep!
-this suggests that we NEED REM and slow wave sleep
-impaired attention, reaction time, motor skills, and decision making

Front 53

what are the two major classes of sleep problems?

Back 53

1.Dysomnias
-insomnia
-narcolepsy
-sleep apnea
2. Parasomnias
-REM-related: REM behavior disorder
-nREM: "arousal disorders
---confusioinial arousals
---somnambulism
---sexsomnia

Front 54

insomnia

Back 54

chronic problems in getting adequate sleep in one of three ways
1.difficulty in falling asleep
2.difficulty in staying asleep
3.persistent early morning awakening

Front 55

narcolepsy

Back 55

disease marked by sudden and irresistible onsets of sleep during normal waking
-person goes from awake straight to REM sleep
-bad if you have it and fall asleep while driving, operating machinery, etc

Front 56

sleep apnea

Back 56

frequent, reflexive gasping for air that awakens a person and disrupts sleep
-can happen hundreds of times per night
-person stops breathing for a minimum of ten seconds
-can sometimes lead to insomnia

Front 57

somnambulism

Back 57

sleepwalking! occurs when a person arises and wanders about while remaining asleep
-usually occurs during the first two hours of sleep
-happens in slow wave sleep

Front 58

Freud's dream theory

Back 58

-believed the principal purpose of dreams was wish fulfillment.
-people fill ungratified needs through wishful thinking in dreams

Front 59

Rosalind Cartwrights dream theory

Back 59

-dreams provide an opportunity to work through everyday problems
-dreams allow people to engage in creative thinking because dreams are not constricted by logic or realism

Front 60

Hobsen's dream theory

Back 60

-argued that dreams are the by-product of bursts of activity emanating from subcortical areas of the brain
-proposed that dream are side effects of the neural activation that produces "wise awake" brain waves during REM sleep
-downplays the role of emotional factors as determinants of dreams

Front 61

cultural variations in the importance of dreams

Back 61

western world- we usually know that dreams are not real and that they don't really have anything to do with our real lives.
other countries-believe dreams show a lot about themselves and take their dreams, and the dream world very seriously

Front 62

hypnosis

Back 62

a systematic procedure that typically produces a heightened state of suggestibility

Front 63

hypnotic induction

Back 63

the process of putting someone into a state of hypnosis. some people just cannot respond to hypnosis, while others are incredibly inclined to be hypnotized

Front 64

Anesthesia

Back 64

hypnosis can be effective in the treatment of acute and chronic pain. usually medication is used, but some doctors use hypnosis as a substitute of anesthetic drugs

Front 65

sensory distortions and hallucinations

Back 65

hypnotized subjects can be lead to experience auditory or visual hallucinations. they may hear/not hear things or see/not see things

Front 66

disinhibition

Back 66

hynosis can reduce inhibitions that would normally prevent subjects from acting in ways they would see as immoral or unacceptable

Front 67

post-hypnotic suggestions and amnesia

Back 67

suggestions made during hypnosis that stick after the patient isn't hypnotized anymore

Front 68

hypnosis as role playing

Back 68

people aren't actually hypnotized but feel as if they are and then act as they think a hypnotized person should act

Front 69

hypnosis as an altered state of consciousness

Back 69

believe it is doubtful that role playing can explain everything about hypnotic effects.
-hypnosis creates a dissociation in consciousness

Front 70

disasociation

Back 70

the splitting off of mental processes into two separate, simultaneous streams of awareness
-1 stream is in communication with the hypnotist/external world. and the other is a hidden observer.

Front 71

classical conditioning

Back 71

a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus

Front 72

unconditioned stimulus (ucs)

Back 72

a stimulus that evokes an unconditional response without previous conditioning
-something that did not have to be created because it was a natural, unlearned association

Front 73

unconditioned response (UR)

Back 73

an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning

Front 74

conditioned association

Back 74

the name of a link established through conditioning

Front 75

conditioned stimulus (CS)

Back 75

a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.

Front 76

Conditioned response (CR)

Back 76

A learned reaction to a conditional stimulus that occurs because off previous conditioning

Front 77

acquisition

Back 77

-the initial stage of learning something
- depends on stimulus contiguity

Front 78

stimulus contiguity

Back 78

-when stimuli occur together in time and in space they are contiguous

Front 79

extinction

Back 79

the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency
-this happens when you are exposed to the conditioned stimulus, but not the unconditioned stimlulus ie-hearing a drill but having no pain

Front 80

spontaneous recovery

Back 80

the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non exposure to the conditioned stimulus

Front 81

stimulus generalization

Back 81

occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus

Front 82

stimulus discrimination

Back 82

occurs when an organism has a learned response to a specific organism that does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus

Front 83

higher-order conditioning

Back 83

where a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditional stimulus

Front 84

primary reinforcers

Back 84

events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs

Front 85

secondary reinforcers

Back 85

aka conditioned reinforcers
events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers

Front 86

schedule of reinforcement

Back 86

a specific or presentation of reinforcers over time

Front 87

continuous reinforcement

Back 87

occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced only some of the time

Front 88

intermittent reinforcement

Back 88

occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time

Front 89

fixed ratio schedule

Back 89

the reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforeced responses

Front 90

variable ratio schedule

Back 90

the reinforcer is given after a variable number of nonreinforced responses

Front 91

fixed interval schedule

Back 91

reinforcer is given for the first respons that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed

Front 92

variable interval schedule

Back 92

reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed. the interval length varies around a predetermined average

Front 93

positive reinforcement

Back 93

occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus

Front 94

positive reinforcement

Back 94

when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus

Front 95

negative reinforcement

Back 95

when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus

Front 96

escape learning

Back 96

an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends unpleasant stimulation

Front 97

punishment

Back 97

occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response

Front 98

shaping

Back 98

behaviors that approximate desired behavior are rewarded