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181 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What is classical conditioning?
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Technique to study how simple associations form-- Allows us to prepare ourselves for future events
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What is Pavlov's definition of classical conditioning?
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The process by which a previously neutral stiumulus causes a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar/related response
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Unconditioned Stimulus
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Stimulus that automatically leads to a response without training (ex: Food)
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Unconditioned Response
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The response that is produced automatically (without training) after the Unconditioned Stimulus (ex: Salivating)
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Conditioned Stimulus
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Neutral stimulus that's paired with the unconditioned stimulus during conditioning
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Conditioned Response
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The learned response produced by the conditioned stimulus (ex: Dog salivates when he hears the owner's footsteps)
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Extinction
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Weakening & eventual disappearance of a learned response
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How does extinction occur?
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Occurs when a CS is presented repeatedly without the US-- Doesn't mean the response is totally forgotten
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Example of extinction
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You no longer ring the bell before giving the dog food, so the dog stops salivating at bell
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Spontaneous Recovery
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Recovery of an extinguished CR after a period of nonexposure to the CS-- Occurs if a rest period follows extinction
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Stimulus Generalization
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Occurs when a new stimulus (that's similar to the CS) elicits the CR
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Example of Stimulus Generalization
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Baby who was conditioned to fear white rats, and extended his fear to other furry creatures
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What is stimulus discrimination?
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A stimulas similar to the conditioned stimulus fails to evoke the conditioned response.
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Why does stimulus discrimination occur?
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The subject learns to discriminate the original stimulus from the others.
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What is operant conditioning?
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Studying how organisms learn about the consequences of their own volunary actions
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What is an example of operant conditioning?
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Humans learn that studying leads to good grades
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What is the Law of Effect?
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If a response is followed by a satisfying consequence, it will be strengthened. If a a response is followed by an unsatisfying consequence, it will be weakened.
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What are the consequences of behavior?
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Reinforcement or punishment
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What is reinforcement?
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Something that strengthens the response or makes it more likely to occur
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What is punishment?
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Something that weakens a response or makes it less likely to recur
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What is positive reinforcement?
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Something that is presented after a response and increases the likelihood of that response occuring again
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What is negative reinforcement?
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Something that is removed after a response and increases the likelihood of the response occuring again
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What is an example of positive reinforcement?
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If you get an A on an exam, your parents buy you a present
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What is an example of negative reinforcement?
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If you get an A on an exam, you dont have to stay home and study every night
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Positive reinforcement usually involves...
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An appetitive stimulus-- Something the organism likes, needs, or wants
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What is shaping? (2)
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Reinforcement is delivered for successive apporoximations of the desired response OR demanding behaviors closer to the desired one before giving a reward
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What is an example of shaping?
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You want a dog to turn in a full circle.. Give it a treat for turning a little to left, then little moer, etc. Eventually give a treat only for a full circle.
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What problem does shaping solve?
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Complex behaviors are unlikely to occur spontaneously & therefore are hard to reinforce
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What is escape conditioning?
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You learn to respond in order to end the stimulus
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What are examples of escape conditioning? (2)
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Rats avoid being shocked longer by pressing the bar to stop it; You shut off your alarm to make the noise go away
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What is avoidance conditioning?
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The subject responds in order to prevent the aversive stimulus
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What is an example of avoidance conditioning?
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Rat learns to press the bar when he sees the light so he wont be shocked
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What types of conditioning does avoidance conditioning involve?
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Both classical & operant
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What is a secondary reinforcer?
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Something that has become a reinforcer through its association with other reinforcers
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What is an example of a secondary reinforcer?
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Money
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What is a schedule of reinforcement?
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Rule that an experimenter uses to determine when particular responses will be reinforced
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What is a continuous schedule of reinforcement?
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A particular response is always reinforced
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What can be a problem with continuous reinforcement?
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Leads to very quick extinction when the reinforcement stops
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What is an intermittent (or partial) schedule of reinforcement?
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A response is sometimes but not always reinforced
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What are the four types of intermittent schedule reinforcement?
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Fixed-ratio; Variable-ratio; Fixed interval; Variable-interval
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What is the fixed-ratio schedule?
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Number of responses required for reinforcement doesn't change (ex: salesman paid for every 10 sales)
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What are the consequences of a fixed-ratio schedule? (2-- Good & Bad)
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Steady rates of responding, but might stop for a period after a reinforcement
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What is a variable-ratio schedule?
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A certain number of responses is required for reinforcement, but the number constantly changes (ex: slot machine)
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What is a fixed-interval schedule & example?
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Reinforcement delivered for the first response after a fixed interval of time (ex: salesman paid for first sale each week)
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What is the problem with a fixed-interval schedule?
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Produces a scalloping pattern & low rates of response
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What is a variable-interval schedule & example?
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Time until reinforcement constantly changes (ex: salesman paid for first sale on a randomly chosen day)
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What is observational learning?
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A subject's natural tendency to imitate the behavior of significant others
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What are the four components of observational learning?
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Attention; Retention; Reproduction; Motivation
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When is observational learning the strongest? (3)
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Model is viewed positively; Model is similar to subject; Model is rewarded for the behavior
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What was Bandura's Bobo research?
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Showed kids a film of an adult hitting a "Bobo" doll and found that the kids imitated the behavior, especially when the adult was praised for the aggression
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What was Bandura's other experiment?
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Children watched a film of two men playing with toys-- One refused to share, hit the other, and took all the toys. Children who watched the video were more violent than the children in the control group
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What is sensation?
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The detection of physical energy emitted/reflected by physical objects
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When does sensation occur?
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When energy in the external environment or the body stimulates receptors in the sense organs
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What is the absolute threshold?
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The minimal stimulation a needed for a person to detect it (sensations)
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What is difference threshold?
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The minimal stimulation needed for a person to detect a change in a stimulus (sensations)
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What is transduction?
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Process of taking incoming physical energy (sound, light, etc) and converting it into neural activity
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What is perception?
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Process by which the brain organizes & attahces meaning to sensory information
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What is figure-ground?
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We organize the world so some parts of a stimulus appear to stand out (figure) in front of others (ground)
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What are the Gestalt Grouping Principles?
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Proximity; Similarity; Closure; Good Continuation; Common Fate
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What is proximity?
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Elements that are close to each other are seen as being part of the same object (ex: Lines of dots, not just dots)
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What is similarity?
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We group things that are similar in color, shape, etc into units & see them as belonging together
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What is closure?
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We complete figures with gaps in them by ignoring the gaps and filling in what we think should be there (ex: circles)
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What is good continuation?
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Lines that are interrupted are seen as continously flowing
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What is common fate?
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Things moving in the same direction are seen as a group
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What is retrieval?
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Recovering memories & translating them into performance
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What are the two types of retrieval?
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Recall & Recognition
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What is recall?
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The ability to retrieve & reproduce previously learned material from memory
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What is recognition?
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The ability to identify previously encountered material
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What is an example of recognition?
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A multiple choice test
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What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon?
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The feeling of being on the verge of recalling something-- You often know its number of syllables or what letter it starts with
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What are the two approaches to memory?
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Information Processing Approach & Reconstructive/Contextual Approach
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What are the four properties of language?
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Symbolic, Semantic, Generative, & Structured
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What does symbolic mean? (Property of Language)
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Allows reference to objects that aren't present
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What does semantic mean? (Property of Language)
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Meaningful... Speakers agree upon the arbitrary relationship between words & objects
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Whta does generative mean? (Property of Language)
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Endless possibilities for combination
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What does structured mean? (Property of Language)
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Rules for arrangement
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What are the three structures of language?
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Phonemes, Morphemes, & Syntax
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What are phonemes?
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The smallest units of sound in spoken language
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What are morphemes?
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The smallest units of meaning in language
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What is syntax?
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Set of rules that allow the communicator to combine arbitrary symbols to convey meaning
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Do nonhuman species have languages?
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They definitely communicate, but that doesnt mean they have languages
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What do psychologists think about chimps learning signs & symbols?
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They cannot speak, and they're symbols may not be language... Psychologists disagree on this
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Why aren't the symbols chimp learn neccessarily language?
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They cant generate new combinations or learn from other chimps
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What do babies do my 3-5 weeks?
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Coo
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What do babies do by 4-6 months?
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Babbling (ex: ba ba ba)
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What do babies do by 6-18 months?
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Holophrastic Speech
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What is holophrastic speech?
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One word utterances
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What is telegraphic speech?
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Simple two word sentences with almost always correct owrd order
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When does telegraphic speech begin?
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When the child is 2 or 3
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When are sophisticated grammar skills learned?
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During the pre-school years, with little formal teaching
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What do pre-schoolers do with grammar rules?
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Over-generalize them (ex: goed, foots)
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At what ages is grammatical knowledge fine-tuned?
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From 3 until 6/7
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What does a baby do at 6-10 months?
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Understands some words & simple requests
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What does a baby do at 10-12 months?
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Begin to use single words
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What does a baby do at 12-18 months?
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Acquire a vocabulary of about 30-50 words
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What does a baby do at 18-24 months?
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Know two-word phrases and a vocabulary of 50-200 words. Also understands rules
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What does a baby do at 24-36 months?
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Has a vocabulary of 1000 words; produces phrases and incomplete sentences
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What does a baby do at 36-60 months?
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Vocab of more than 10,000 words... Produces full sentences. Can form questions and negations
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What is a concept?
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A mental category that groups objects, relations, activities, abstractions, or qualities having common properties
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What is an example of a concept?
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Grouping circles and green squares
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What is a prototype?
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An especially representative example of a concept (ex: Golden retriever as a dog)
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What are the (3) levels of the hierarchical structure of categories?
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Basic-level; Superordinate; Subordinate-level
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What is the basic-level category?
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The most useful and predictive... Used most often (ex: Activity)
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What are superordinate categories?
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More general, less descriptive categories (ex: Board Game)
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What are subordinate-level categories?
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Very specific (ex: Monopoly)
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What is reasoning?
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The drawing of conclusions/inferences from observations, facts, or assumptions
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What is the Information Processing Approach?
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Idea about memory
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What are the characteristics of the Information Processing Approach? (3)
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People are active processors of information; Information is processed through a series of hypothetical stages or stores; We can look at how much and what kind of info is remembered at each stage
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What are the two types of sensory memories?
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Iconic (visual) & Echoic (audital)
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What is the sensory memory?
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Exact replica of an environmental message which usually lasts for a second or less
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What is the capacity and decay of sensory memory?
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High capacity; Fast decay
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What are the two types of memory rehearsal?
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Maintenance & Elaborative
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What is maintenance rehearsal?
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Repetition of material in order to maintain its availability in memory
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What is elaborative rehearsal?
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Association of new information with already stored knowledge & analysis of the new information to make it memorable
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What is the long-term memory?
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The memory system involved in the long term storage of information
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What is the capacity of the long-term memory?
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Very large-- Pretty much unlimited
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What is the duration of the long-term memory?
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Indefinite
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What are the three types of memories stored in the long-term memory?
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Episodic, Semantic, & Procedural
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What is an episodic memory?
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Memory of a particular event/episode that happened to you personally... Stored with time & place cues
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What is a semantic memory?
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Knowledge about the world, stored as facts that make little/no references to one's personal experiences (dont know how you learned it)
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What is a procedural memory?
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Knowledge about how to do things
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What is the Serial Position Effect?
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Memory for items in a list is best for those at the beginning & end
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What is the primacy effect?
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We best remember items at the beginning of a list
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What is the recency effect?
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We best remember items at the end of a list
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What are the two cues of depth perception and what do they cause?
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Monocular & Binocular-- Causes your finger in front of you to switch from side to side as you switch your open eye
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What are binocular cues?
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Depend on both eyes
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What are monocular cues?
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Require input from only one eye
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What (4) things require monocular cues?
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Linear perspective, relative size, interposition, & texture gradient
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What is retinal disparity?
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Difference between the location of images in each retina (makes you finger "move")
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What are three factors that influence perception?
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Motivation, Context, & Experience
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What is motivation in terms of perception?
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We are more likely to perceive something when we need it (emotions influence our perception-- ex: hunger)
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What is second-order conditioning?
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Procedure by which an established CS is used to condition a second neutral stimulus
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How does second-order conditioning happen?
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A neutral stimulus is paired with an existing CS --> Becomes a CS itself
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What is systematic desensitization?
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Helps a person get over a fear-- Teaches relaxation to deal with a hirearchy of fears (least to most feared stimulus)-- Person works thru the different fears while staying calm
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What is aversive conditioning?
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Pairing a neutral (unwanted) stimulus with a bad response... Doesn't neccessarily work
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What is an example of aversive conditioning?
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Pairing alcohol with a shock & therefore pain
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What is reward training?
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Something that strengthens the learning of a behavior... Also helps a complex behavior occur more
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What is punishment?
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Something bad given to decrease the likelihood of a specific behavior (can suppress behavior when administered correctly)
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What are (6) problems with punishment?
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Hard to punish immediately; People often administer it inappropriately; May accidently be reinforcing; Conveys little info (doesn't promote better behavior); Physical punishments can injure; Can lead to imitation of punisher (ex: aggression)
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What are the two possible consequences to behavior?
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Reinforcement (makes it happen more) & punishment (makes it happen less)
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What is the Premack Principle?
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Desired behaviors can be used to reinforce less desired behaviors
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What is behavior modification?
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Using operant conditioning techniques to teach new responses or reduce problematic behavior
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What is linear perspective?
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Depth Cue-- Parallel lines converge as they recede into the distance
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What is interposition?
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Depth Cue-- Object blocking is closer than the blocked object
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What is synesthesia?
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The perceptual experience of one sense evoked by another sense
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What is sensory adaptation?
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Sensitivity to prolonged stimulation declines over time as you adapt to the situation
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What is the CS-US Connection?
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The CS is a signal that the US will occur
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How is the CS-US Connection formed?
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CS is most effective when it comes right before the US... If CS is presented at the same time or after the US, no conditioning will occur
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What is acquisition?
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Conditioned responding becomes stronger with repeated CS-US pairings
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What is encoding?
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Forming memories and putting them into our memory
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What is storage?
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Keeping memories over time
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What is retrieval?
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Recovering memories & translating them into performance
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What are the two types of retrieval?
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Recall & Recognition
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What is recall?
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Previously learned material is retrieved and reproduced from memory
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What is recognition?
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Previously encountered material is able to be identified
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What is the short-term memory?
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System used to temporarily store, think about, & reason with information
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What is the capacity of the short-term memory?
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Small (about 7 items) but can be increased with things such as chunking
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What is chunking?
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Rearranging incoming info into meaningful or familiar patterns (ex: FBI, CIA, area codes)
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What is the duration of short-term memory?
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Short-- Information is retained for a brief period of time before it is replaced
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What is the long-term memory?
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System used to maintain information for extended periods of time
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What is a context-dependent memory?
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Environmental context becomes encoded with the material being remembered-- Being in that context increases memory (ex: smell that brings a memory)
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What is a state-dependent memory?
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Remembering something when you're in the same physical/mental state as during the original experience
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What is eyewitness testimony?
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Story of events based on what a person saw... Depend son reconstructive memory & therefore not always reliable
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What are the two types of interference?
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Retroactive & Proactive (Both are ways to forget)
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What is retroactive interference?
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Formation of new memories hurts retention of old memories
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What is proactive interference?
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Old memories interfere with the establish/recovery of new memories
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What is retrieval failure?
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When the correct retrieval cues aren't produced to get a memory (Encodign specificity)
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How can retrieval failure be corrected?
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Cue must be interpreted in a way that matched the original encoding
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What is a flashbulb memory?
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Rich memory record of the circumstances surrounding emotionally significant & surprising events
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What is retrograde amnesia?
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Forgetting events that happened prior to an injury
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What is ECT?
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Electroconvulsive therapy that can interfere with consolidation & cause retrograde amnesia (as can head trauma)
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What is consolidation?
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Process by which long-term memory becomes durable & stable... Involves chemical/structural changes of neurons
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What is motivated forgetting?
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Repression... People try to forget traumatic events
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What is decay?
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Idea that memories fade with time... Cant be proven since memories can be recovered
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What is blocking?
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When you cant retrieve info in your memory though you're trying to produce it
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What is memory misattribution?
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Assigning a memory or idea to a wrong source
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What is source memory?
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Recall of when, where, and how a memory was acquired
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What is false recognition?
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Feeling of familiararity about something that hasn't been seen before
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What is suggestibility?
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Tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections
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What is persistance?
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Intrusive recollection of events we wish we could forget
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What is a flashbulb memory?
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Detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events
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