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181 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What is classical conditioning?
Technique to study how simple associations form-- Allows us to prepare ourselves for future events
What is Pavlov's definition of classical conditioning?
The process by which a previously neutral stiumulus causes a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar/related response
Unconditioned Stimulus
Stimulus that automatically leads to a response without training (ex: Food)
Unconditioned Response
The response that is produced automatically (without training) after the Unconditioned Stimulus (ex: Salivating)
Conditioned Stimulus
Neutral stimulus that's paired with the unconditioned stimulus during conditioning
Conditioned Response
The learned response produced by the conditioned stimulus (ex: Dog salivates when he hears the owner's footsteps)
Extinction
Weakening & eventual disappearance of a learned response
How does extinction occur?
Occurs when a CS is presented repeatedly without the US-- Doesn't mean the response is totally forgotten
Example of extinction
You no longer ring the bell before giving the dog food, so the dog stops salivating at bell
Spontaneous Recovery
Recovery of an extinguished CR after a period of nonexposure to the CS-- Occurs if a rest period follows extinction
Stimulus Generalization
Occurs when a new stimulus (that's similar to the CS) elicits the CR
Example of Stimulus Generalization
Baby who was conditioned to fear white rats, and extended his fear to other furry creatures
What is stimulus discrimination?
A stimulas similar to the conditioned stimulus fails to evoke the conditioned response.
Why does stimulus discrimination occur?
The subject learns to discriminate the original stimulus from the others.
What is operant conditioning?
Studying how organisms learn about the consequences of their own volunary actions
What is an example of operant conditioning?
Humans learn that studying leads to good grades
What is the Law of Effect?
If a response is followed by a satisfying consequence, it will be strengthened. If a a response is followed by an unsatisfying consequence, it will be weakened.
What are the consequences of behavior?
Reinforcement or punishment
What is reinforcement?
Something that strengthens the response or makes it more likely to occur
What is punishment?
Something that weakens a response or makes it less likely to recur
What is positive reinforcement?
Something that is presented after a response and increases the likelihood of that response occuring again
What is negative reinforcement?
Something that is removed after a response and increases the likelihood of the response occuring again
What is an example of positive reinforcement?
If you get an A on an exam, your parents buy you a present
What is an example of negative reinforcement?
If you get an A on an exam, you dont have to stay home and study every night
Positive reinforcement usually involves...
An appetitive stimulus-- Something the organism likes, needs, or wants
What is shaping? (2)
Reinforcement is delivered for successive apporoximations of the desired response OR demanding behaviors closer to the desired one before giving a reward
What is an example of shaping?
You want a dog to turn in a full circle.. Give it a treat for turning a little to left, then little moer, etc. Eventually give a treat only for a full circle.
What problem does shaping solve?
Complex behaviors are unlikely to occur spontaneously & therefore are hard to reinforce
What is escape conditioning?
You learn to respond in order to end the stimulus
What are examples of escape conditioning? (2)
Rats avoid being shocked longer by pressing the bar to stop it; You shut off your alarm to make the noise go away
What is avoidance conditioning?
The subject responds in order to prevent the aversive stimulus
What is an example of avoidance conditioning?
Rat learns to press the bar when he sees the light so he wont be shocked
What types of conditioning does avoidance conditioning involve?
Both classical & operant
What is a secondary reinforcer?
Something that has become a reinforcer through its association with other reinforcers
What is an example of a secondary reinforcer?
Money
What is a schedule of reinforcement?
Rule that an experimenter uses to determine when particular responses will be reinforced
What is a continuous schedule of reinforcement?
A particular response is always reinforced
What can be a problem with continuous reinforcement?
Leads to very quick extinction when the reinforcement stops
What is an intermittent (or partial) schedule of reinforcement?
A response is sometimes but not always reinforced
What are the four types of intermittent schedule reinforcement?
Fixed-ratio; Variable-ratio; Fixed interval; Variable-interval
What is the fixed-ratio schedule?
Number of responses required for reinforcement doesn't change (ex: salesman paid for every 10 sales)
What are the consequences of a fixed-ratio schedule? (2-- Good & Bad)
Steady rates of responding, but might stop for a period after a reinforcement
What is a variable-ratio schedule?
A certain number of responses is required for reinforcement, but the number constantly changes (ex: slot machine)
What is a fixed-interval schedule & example?
Reinforcement delivered for the first response after a fixed interval of time (ex: salesman paid for first sale each week)
What is the problem with a fixed-interval schedule?
Produces a scalloping pattern & low rates of response
What is a variable-interval schedule & example?
Time until reinforcement constantly changes (ex: salesman paid for first sale on a randomly chosen day)
What is observational learning?
A subject's natural tendency to imitate the behavior of significant others
What are the four components of observational learning?
Attention; Retention; Reproduction; Motivation
When is observational learning the strongest? (3)
Model is viewed positively; Model is similar to subject; Model is rewarded for the behavior
What was Bandura's Bobo research?
Showed kids a film of an adult hitting a "Bobo" doll and found that the kids imitated the behavior, especially when the adult was praised for the aggression
What was Bandura's other experiment?
Children watched a film of two men playing with toys-- One refused to share, hit the other, and took all the toys. Children who watched the video were more violent than the children in the control group
What is sensation?
The detection of physical energy emitted/reflected by physical objects
When does sensation occur?
When energy in the external environment or the body stimulates receptors in the sense organs
What is the absolute threshold?
The minimal stimulation a needed for a person to detect it (sensations)
What is difference threshold?
The minimal stimulation needed for a person to detect a change in a stimulus (sensations)
What is transduction?
Process of taking incoming physical energy (sound, light, etc) and converting it into neural activity
What is perception?
Process by which the brain organizes & attahces meaning to sensory information
What is figure-ground?
We organize the world so some parts of a stimulus appear to stand out (figure) in front of others (ground)
What are the Gestalt Grouping Principles?
Proximity; Similarity; Closure; Good Continuation; Common Fate
What is proximity?
Elements that are close to each other are seen as being part of the same object (ex: Lines of dots, not just dots)
What is similarity?
We group things that are similar in color, shape, etc into units & see them as belonging together
What is closure?
We complete figures with gaps in them by ignoring the gaps and filling in what we think should be there (ex: circles)
What is good continuation?
Lines that are interrupted are seen as continously flowing
What is common fate?
Things moving in the same direction are seen as a group
What is retrieval?
Recovering memories & translating them into performance
What are the two types of retrieval?
Recall & Recognition
What is recall?
The ability to retrieve & reproduce previously learned material from memory
What is recognition?
The ability to identify previously encountered material
What is an example of recognition?
A multiple choice test
What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon?
The feeling of being on the verge of recalling something-- You often know its number of syllables or what letter it starts with
What are the two approaches to memory?
Information Processing Approach & Reconstructive/Contextual Approach
What are the four properties of language?
Symbolic, Semantic, Generative, & Structured
What does symbolic mean? (Property of Language)
Allows reference to objects that aren't present
What does semantic mean? (Property of Language)
Meaningful... Speakers agree upon the arbitrary relationship between words & objects
Whta does generative mean? (Property of Language)
Endless possibilities for combination
What does structured mean? (Property of Language)
Rules for arrangement
What are the three structures of language?
Phonemes, Morphemes, & Syntax
What are phonemes?
The smallest units of sound in spoken language
What are morphemes?
The smallest units of meaning in language
What is syntax?
Set of rules that allow the communicator to combine arbitrary symbols to convey meaning
Do nonhuman species have languages?
They definitely communicate, but that doesnt mean they have languages
What do psychologists think about chimps learning signs & symbols?
They cannot speak, and they're symbols may not be language... Psychologists disagree on this
Why aren't the symbols chimp learn neccessarily language?
They cant generate new combinations or learn from other chimps
What do babies do my 3-5 weeks?
Coo
What do babies do by 4-6 months?
Babbling (ex: ba ba ba)
What do babies do by 6-18 months?
Holophrastic Speech
What is holophrastic speech?
One word utterances
What is telegraphic speech?
Simple two word sentences with almost always correct owrd order
When does telegraphic speech begin?
When the child is 2 or 3
When are sophisticated grammar skills learned?
During the pre-school years, with little formal teaching
What do pre-schoolers do with grammar rules?
Over-generalize them (ex: goed, foots)
At what ages is grammatical knowledge fine-tuned?
From 3 until 6/7
What does a baby do at 6-10 months?
Understands some words & simple requests
What does a baby do at 10-12 months?
Begin to use single words
What does a baby do at 12-18 months?
Acquire a vocabulary of about 30-50 words
What does a baby do at 18-24 months?
Know two-word phrases and a vocabulary of 50-200 words. Also understands rules
What does a baby do at 24-36 months?
Has a vocabulary of 1000 words; produces phrases and incomplete sentences
What does a baby do at 36-60 months?
Vocab of more than 10,000 words... Produces full sentences. Can form questions and negations
What is a concept?
A mental category that groups objects, relations, activities, abstractions, or qualities having common properties
What is an example of a concept?
Grouping circles and green squares
What is a prototype?
An especially representative example of a concept (ex: Golden retriever as a dog)
What are the (3) levels of the hierarchical structure of categories?
Basic-level; Superordinate; Subordinate-level
What is the basic-level category?
The most useful and predictive... Used most often (ex: Activity)
What are superordinate categories?
More general, less descriptive categories (ex: Board Game)
What are subordinate-level categories?
Very specific (ex: Monopoly)
What is reasoning?
The drawing of conclusions/inferences from observations, facts, or assumptions
What is the Information Processing Approach?
Idea about memory
What are the characteristics of the Information Processing Approach? (3)
People are active processors of information; Information is processed through a series of hypothetical stages or stores; We can look at how much and what kind of info is remembered at each stage
What are the two types of sensory memories?
Iconic (visual) & Echoic (audital)
What is the sensory memory?
Exact replica of an environmental message which usually lasts for a second or less
What is the capacity and decay of sensory memory?
High capacity; Fast decay
What are the two types of memory rehearsal?
Maintenance & Elaborative
What is maintenance rehearsal?
Repetition of material in order to maintain its availability in memory
What is elaborative rehearsal?
Association of new information with already stored knowledge & analysis of the new information to make it memorable
What is the long-term memory?
The memory system involved in the long term storage of information
What is the capacity of the long-term memory?
Very large-- Pretty much unlimited
What is the duration of the long-term memory?
Indefinite
What are the three types of memories stored in the long-term memory?
Episodic, Semantic, & Procedural
What is an episodic memory?
Memory of a particular event/episode that happened to you personally... Stored with time & place cues
What is a semantic memory?
Knowledge about the world, stored as facts that make little/no references to one's personal experiences (dont know how you learned it)
What is a procedural memory?
Knowledge about how to do things
What is the Serial Position Effect?
Memory for items in a list is best for those at the beginning & end
What is the primacy effect?
We best remember items at the beginning of a list
What is the recency effect?
We best remember items at the end of a list
What are the two cues of depth perception and what do they cause?
Monocular & Binocular-- Causes your finger in front of you to switch from side to side as you switch your open eye
What are binocular cues?
Depend on both eyes
What are monocular cues?
Require input from only one eye
What (4) things require monocular cues?
Linear perspective, relative size, interposition, & texture gradient
What is retinal disparity?
Difference between the location of images in each retina (makes you finger "move")
What are three factors that influence perception?
Motivation, Context, & Experience
What is motivation in terms of perception?
We are more likely to perceive something when we need it (emotions influence our perception-- ex: hunger)
What is second-order conditioning?
Procedure by which an established CS is used to condition a second neutral stimulus
How does second-order conditioning happen?
A neutral stimulus is paired with an existing CS --> Becomes a CS itself
What is systematic desensitization?
Helps a person get over a fear-- Teaches relaxation to deal with a hirearchy of fears (least to most feared stimulus)-- Person works thru the different fears while staying calm
What is aversive conditioning?
Pairing a neutral (unwanted) stimulus with a bad response... Doesn't neccessarily work
What is an example of aversive conditioning?
Pairing alcohol with a shock & therefore pain
What is reward training?
Something that strengthens the learning of a behavior... Also helps a complex behavior occur more
What is punishment?
Something bad given to decrease the likelihood of a specific behavior (can suppress behavior when administered correctly)
What are (6) problems with punishment?
Hard to punish immediately; People often administer it inappropriately; May accidently be reinforcing; Conveys little info (doesn't promote better behavior); Physical punishments can injure; Can lead to imitation of punisher (ex: aggression)
What are the two possible consequences to behavior?
Reinforcement (makes it happen more) & punishment (makes it happen less)
What is the Premack Principle?
Desired behaviors can be used to reinforce less desired behaviors
What is behavior modification?
Using operant conditioning techniques to teach new responses or reduce problematic behavior
What is linear perspective?
Depth Cue-- Parallel lines converge as they recede into the distance
What is interposition?
Depth Cue-- Object blocking is closer than the blocked object
What is synesthesia?
The perceptual experience of one sense evoked by another sense
What is sensory adaptation?
Sensitivity to prolonged stimulation declines over time as you adapt to the situation
What is the CS-US Connection?
The CS is a signal that the US will occur
How is the CS-US Connection formed?
CS is most effective when it comes right before the US... If CS is presented at the same time or after the US, no conditioning will occur
What is acquisition?
Conditioned responding becomes stronger with repeated CS-US pairings
What is encoding?
Forming memories and putting them into our memory
What is storage?
Keeping memories over time
What is retrieval?
Recovering memories & translating them into performance
What are the two types of retrieval?
Recall & Recognition
What is recall?
Previously learned material is retrieved and reproduced from memory
What is recognition?
Previously encountered material is able to be identified
What is the short-term memory?
System used to temporarily store, think about, & reason with information
What is the capacity of the short-term memory?
Small (about 7 items) but can be increased with things such as chunking
What is chunking?
Rearranging incoming info into meaningful or familiar patterns (ex: FBI, CIA, area codes)
What is the duration of short-term memory?
Short-- Information is retained for a brief period of time before it is replaced
What is the long-term memory?
System used to maintain information for extended periods of time
What is a context-dependent memory?
Environmental context becomes encoded with the material being remembered-- Being in that context increases memory (ex: smell that brings a memory)
What is a state-dependent memory?
Remembering something when you're in the same physical/mental state as during the original experience
What is eyewitness testimony?
Story of events based on what a person saw... Depend son reconstructive memory & therefore not always reliable
What are the two types of interference?
Retroactive & Proactive (Both are ways to forget)
What is retroactive interference?
Formation of new memories hurts retention of old memories
What is proactive interference?
Old memories interfere with the establish/recovery of new memories
What is retrieval failure?
When the correct retrieval cues aren't produced to get a memory (Encodign specificity)
How can retrieval failure be corrected?
Cue must be interpreted in a way that matched the original encoding
What is a flashbulb memory?
Rich memory record of the circumstances surrounding emotionally significant & surprising events
What is retrograde amnesia?
Forgetting events that happened prior to an injury
What is ECT?
Electroconvulsive therapy that can interfere with consolidation & cause retrograde amnesia (as can head trauma)
What is consolidation?
Process by which long-term memory becomes durable & stable... Involves chemical/structural changes of neurons
What is motivated forgetting?
Repression... People try to forget traumatic events
What is decay?
Idea that memories fade with time... Cant be proven since memories can be recovered
What is blocking?
When you cant retrieve info in your memory though you're trying to produce it
What is memory misattribution?
Assigning a memory or idea to a wrong source
What is source memory?
Recall of when, where, and how a memory was acquired
What is false recognition?
Feeling of familiararity about something that hasn't been seen before
What is suggestibility?
Tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections
What is persistance?
Intrusive recollection of events we wish we could forget
What is a flashbulb memory?
Detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events