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221 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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action potential
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the electrical signal that passes along the axon and causes release of chemicals that transmit signals to other neurons
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resting membrane potential
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the electrical charge of a neutron when it is not active
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polarizaiton
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differential electrical charge inside and outside of the neuron
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ion channels
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specialized pores through which ions pass
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selectively permeable
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membrane allows some types of ions to cross more easily than others
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excitatory signals
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stimulate the neuron to fire, leads to depolarization
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inhibitory signals
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reduce the likelihood of the neuron's firing, leads to hyperpolarization
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propagation
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the depolarization of the cell membrane moves along the axon like a wave
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absolute refractory period
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during this time it is impossible for the neuron to fire
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relative refractory period
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neuron can only fire in response to an especially strong signal
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all or none principle
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a neuron fires with the same potency each time, although frequency can vary, it either fires or not, it can't partially fire
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myelin sheath
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a fatty material, made up of gilal cells, that insulates the axon and allows for the rapid movement of electrical impulses along the axon
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nodes of ranvier
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small gaps of exposed axon, between the segments of myelin sheath, where action potentials are transmitted
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synaptic cleft
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small space between neurons that contains extracellular fluid
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presynaptic
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neuron that sends the signal
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postsynaptic
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neuron that receives the signal
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neurotransmitter
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a generic word used for chemical substances that carry signals across the synaptic cleft
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receptors
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specialized protein molecules
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reuptake
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the process whereby the neurotransmitter is taken back into the presynaptic terminal buttons, thereby stopping its activity
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enzyme deactivation
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the process whereby the neurotransmitter is destroyed by an enzyme, thereby terminating its activity
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autoreceptors
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a neuron's own neurotransmitter receptors, which regulate the release of the neurotransmitter
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agonists
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any drug that enhances the actions of a specific neurotransmitter
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antagonist
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any drug that inhibits the action of a specific neurotransmitter
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4 types of neurotransmitters
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1. acetylcholine
2. monoamines 3. amino acids 4. peptides |
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acetylcholine
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the neurotransmitter responsible for motor control at the junction between nerves and muscles; also involved in mental processes such as learning, memory, sleeping, and dreaming
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monoamines
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a group of neurotransmitters synthesized from a single amino acid that are involved in a variety of psychological activities
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epinephrine
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a monoamine, found primarily in the body, which causes a burst of energy after an exciting event
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norephinephrine
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involved in states of arousal and vigilance
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serotonin
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important for a wide range of psychological activity, including emotional states, impulse control, and dreaming
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dopamine
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involved in reward, motivation, and motor control
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parkinson's disease
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a neurological disorder that seems to be caused by dopamine depletion, marked by muscular rigidity, tremors, and difficulty initiating voluntary action
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GABA
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the primary inhibitor transmitter in the nervous system
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glutamate
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the primary excitatory transmitter in the nervous system
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peptides
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chains of two or more amino acids found in the brain and the body; they can act like classic neurotransmitters or modify the quality of the neurotransmitter with which they are released
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cholecystokinin (CCK)
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the peptide found in highest concentration in the cerebral cortex, it plays a role in learning and memory, pain transmission, and exploratory behaviors
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endorphins
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peptides involved in natural pain reduction and reward
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substance P
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a peptide that acts as a neurotransmitter and is involved in pain perception
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central nervous system (CNS)
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the brain and spinal cord
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peripheral nervous system (PNS)
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all nerve cells in the body that are not part of the central nervous system. the pns includes the somatic and automatic nervous systems
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somatic nervous system
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a major component of the peripheral nervous system, which transmits sensory signals to the CNS via nerves
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autonomic nervous system
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a major component of the peripheral nervous system, which regulates the body's internal environment by stimulating glands and by maintaining internal organs such as the heart, gall bladder, and stomach
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sympathetic division
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a division of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for action
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parasympathetic division
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a division of the autonomic system that returns the body to its resting state
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endocrine system
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a communication system that uses hormones to influence thoughts, behaviors, and actions
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hormones
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chemical substances, typically released from endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to targeted tissue, which are subsequently influenced by the hormone
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gonads
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the main endocrine glands involved in sexual behavior: in males, the testes; in females, the ovaries
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pituitary gland
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located at the base of the hypothalamus, the gland that sends hormonal signals that control the release of hormones from endocrine glands
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psychotropic medications
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drugs that affect mental processes
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three classes of psychotropic medications
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1. anti-anxiety
2. anti-depressants 3. antipsychotics |
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anti-anxiety drugs
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used for the short-term treatment of anxiety
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anti-depressants
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used to treat depression
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MAO inhibitors
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the first antidepressants to be discovered; they inhibit the action of monoamine oxidase
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tricyclic antidepressants
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they inhibit the reuptake of a number of different neurotransmitters
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selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
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prolong the effects of serotonin in the synapse (prozac)
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anti psychotics(neuroleptics)
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a class of drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other disorders that involve psychosis
-reduce delusions and hallucinations |
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tardive dyskinesia
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the involuntary twitching of muscles
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lithium
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the most effective treatment for bipolar disorder, but scientists aren't sure exactly how it works
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anticonvulsants
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used to regulate moods in bipolar disorder
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transcranial magnetic stimulation
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a procedure that transmits pulses of high intensity magnetism to the brain
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clozapine
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an antipsychotic medication that acts on multiple neurotransmitter receptors and is beneficial in treating both the negative and positive symptoms of schizophrenia
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intracranial self stimulation
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a procedure in which animals are able to self-administer electrical shock to specific areas of the brain
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pleasure centers
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brain regions that support ICSS
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sensory-specific satiety
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a phenomenon in which animals will become full relatively quickly if they just have one type of food to eat, but will eat more if presented with a different type of food
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cuisine
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local norms of not only what to eat but also how to prepare it
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gourmand syndrome
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people become obsessed with fine food and food preperation
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glucostatic theory
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proposes that specialized receptors monitor the extent to which glucose is taken up into cells so it can be used for energy
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lipostatic theory
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proposes a set-point for body fat, and deviations from that point initiate compensatory behaviors to return it to homeostatis
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physical dependence
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synonymous with addiction, the physiological state in which failing to ingest a specific substance leads to bodily symptoms of withdrawal
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psychological dependence
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habitual substance use, despite consequences, and a compulsive need to continue using the drug
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psychoactive drugs
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mind altering substances that change the brain's neurochemisty by activating neurotransmitter receptors
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stimulants
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drugs that increase behavioral and mental activity (cocaine, nicotine, caffeine, amphetamines)
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cocaine
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stimulant that gives its users a wave of confidence and good feeling
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ampetamines
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stimulants synthesized using simple lab methods
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ecstasy (MDMA)
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produces an energizing effect similar to that of stimulants but also causes slight hallucinations
-more serotonin release and less dopamine release -users feel depressed when the drug wears off |
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opiates
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heroin, morphine, and codeine
-provide enormous reward value by increasing dopamine activation -feelings of relaxation, analgesia, and euphoria |
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alcoholism
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abnormal alcohol seeking characterized by loss of control over drinking and accompanied by physiological effects of tolerance and withdrawal
-alcohol impairs motor processes, information processing, and mood, independent of what people think about it |
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opiates activate what receptors
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opiate receptors and dopamine receptors
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korsakoff's syndrome
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an alcohol-related disorder characterized by severe memory loss and intellectual deterioration
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sexual response cycle
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1. excitement
2. plateau 3. orgasm 4. resolution |
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sexual scripts
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cognitive beliefs about how a sexual episode should be enacted
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erotophobia
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the disposition to respond negatively to sexual cues
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sexual strategies theory
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evolutionary theory that suggests that men and women look for different qualities in their relationship partners due to the gender specific adaptive problems they've faced throughout human history
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emotion
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feelings that involve subjective evaluation, physiological processes, and cognitive beliefs
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mood
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a diffuse and long-lasting emotional state that influences rather than interrupts thought and behavior
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stress
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a pattern of behavioral and physiological responses to events that match or exceed an organism's abilities
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health psychology
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the field of psychological science concerned with the events that affect physical well-being
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display rules
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cultural rules that govern how and when emotions are exhibited
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affect-as-information
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people use their current emotional state to make judgments and appraisals, even if they do not know the source of their moods
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somatic markers
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bodily reactions that arise from the emotional evaluation of an action's consequences
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emotional stroop test
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participants are asked to name the color of the ink which is hard because humans tend to want to say the word they read. however, if the words have emotional impact, it is even harder to say the color of the ink because more attention is paid to the word
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attentional blink
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it is harder to remember the 2nd of 2 words flashed upon the screen unless the second word is very emotional, then it is easier to remember
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which neurotrasmitter enhances memory for emotional events
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norephinephrine
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guilt
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a negative emotional state associated with an internal experience of anxiety, tension, and agitiation, in which a person feels responsible for causing an adverse state
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how does guilt protect and strengthen relationships
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1. feelings of guilt prevent people from doing things that would harm their relationships
2. displays of guilt show that people care about their relationships 3. guilt is an influence tactic that can be used to manipulate the behaviors of others |
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subjective experience
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feeling state that accompanies emotions
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physical changes
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increased heart rate, skin temperature, or brain activation
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cognitive appraisal
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involves people's belief and understandings about why they feel the way they feel
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phenomenological
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we experience emotions subjectively
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alexithymia
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a disorder in which people do not experience the subjective component of emotion
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primary emotions
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evoluationary adaptive emotions that humans share across cultures, they are associated with specific biological and physical states
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secondary emotions
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blends of primary emotions, including states such as remorse, guilt, submission, and anticipation
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circumplex model
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an approach to understand emotion in which two basic factors of emotion are spatially arranged in a circle, formed around the intersections of the core dimensions of affect
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valence
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degree of pleasantness or unpleasantness
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activation
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the level of arousal or mobilization of energy
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James-Lange theory of emotion
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a theory that suggests that the experience of emotion is elicited by a physiological response to a particular stimulus or situation
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facial feedback hypothesis
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the idea that facial expressions trigger the experience of emotion
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Cannon-bard theory of emotion
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a theory that asserts that emotion-producing stimuli from the environment elicit both an emotional and a physical reaction
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two-factor theory of emotion
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a theory that proposes that a situation evokes both a physiological response, such as arousal, and a cognitive interpretation
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misattribution of arousal
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a term used when an emotion label is derived from the wrong source
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excitation transfer
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a form of misattribution in which residual physiological arousal caused by one event is transferred to a new stimulus
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cognitively frame it
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the way in which we think about an event
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thought suppression
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in which people attempt not to respond or feel the emotion at all
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rumination
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thinking about, elaborating, and focusing on undesired thoughts or feelings, which prolongs, rather than alleviates a negative mood
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cerebral asymmetry
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an emotional pattern associated with unequal activation of the left and right frontal lobes
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stressor
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an environmental event or stimulus that threatens an organism
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coping response
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any response an organism makes to avoid, escape from, or minimize an aversive stimulus
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flight-or-fight resposne
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the physiological preparedness or animals to deal with danger
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tend-and-befriend response
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the argument that females are more likely to protect and care for their offspring and form social alliances than flee or fight in response to threat
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general adaptation syndrome
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a consistent pattern of responses to stress that consists of three stages: alarm, resistance and exhaustion
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alarm stage
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emergency reaction that prepares the body to fight or flee, boosts physical abilities
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resistance stage
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defenses are prepared for a longer, sustained attack against the stressor
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exhaustion stage
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a variety of physiological and immune systems fail
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major life stressors
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changes or disruptions that strain central areas or people's lives
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daily changes
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small, day-to-day irritations and annoyances such as driving in traffic or having to wait in line
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type A behavior
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a pattern of behavior characterized by competitiveness, achievement orientation, aggressiveness, hostility
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type B behavior
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relaxed, noncompetitive, easygoing, and accommodation behavior
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immune system
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the body's mechanism for dealing with invading microorganisms, such as allergens, bacteria, and viruses
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lymphocytes
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specialized white blood cells known as B cells, T cells, and natural killer cells that make up the immune system
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primary appraisal
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part of the coping process that involves making decisions about whether a stimulus is stressful, benign, or irrelevant
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secondary appraisal
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part of the coping process during which people evaluate their options and choose coping behaviors
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emotion focused coping
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a type of coping in which people try to prevent having an emotional response to a stressor
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problem focused coping
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a type of coping in which people take direct steps to confront or minimize a stressor
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hardiness
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a personality trait that enables people to perceive stressors as controllable challenges
1. commitment 2. challenge 3. control |
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social support
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a network of other people who can provide help, encouragement, and advice
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buffering hypothesis
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the idea that other people can provide direct support in helping individuals cope with stressful events
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body mass index (BMI)
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a ratio of body weight to height used to measure obesity
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anorexia nervosa
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an eating disorder characterized by an excessive fear of becoming fat an thus a refusal to eat
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bulimia nervosa
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an eating disorder characterized by dieting, binge eating, and purging
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materialism
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based on the belief that the brain and mind are inseperable
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qualia
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the properties of our subjective, phenomenological awareness
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unconscious
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those processes that are outside the realm of conscious awareness
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blindsight
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a condition in which people who are blind have some spared visual capacities in the absence of any visual awareness
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beta waves
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waves during wakefulness
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alpha waves
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waves during sleep
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insomnia
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a disorder characterized by an inability to sleep
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REM sleep
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the stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movements, dreaming, and paralysis of motor systems
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unihemispherical sleep
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when the cerebral hemispheres take turns sleeping
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reasons animals sleep:
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1. restoration
2. circadian cycles 3. facilitation of learning |
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restorative theory
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emphasizes that the brain and the body need to rest and that sleep allows the body to repair itself
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microsleeps
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brief, unintended sleep episodes, ranging from a few seconds to a minute, caused by chronic sleep deprivation
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circadian rhythms
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the regulation of biological cycles into regular patterns
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pons
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a region of the brainstem that sends signals to the spinal cord that block movement during REM sleep
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dreams
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the product of an altered state of consciousness in which images and fantasies are confused with reality
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manifest content
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the plot of a dream; the way a dream is remembered
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latent content
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what a dream symbolizes, or the material that is disguised in the dream to protect the dreamer
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activation-synthesis hypothesis
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proposes that neural stimulation form the pons activates mechanisms that normally interpret visual input
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epiphenomenal
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dreams are the experienced side effects of mental processes
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intelligence
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the human ability to use knowledge, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental challenges
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what are the three types of intelligence
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psychometric, cognitive, and biological
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psychometric intelligence
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examines what people know and the skills they have for solving problems
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cognitive intelligence
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examines the particular mental abilities that allow people to operate in an intelligent fashion
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biological intelligence
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concerned with how the brain processes information and the extent to which differences in brain activity are affected by genes and the environment
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achievement tests
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assess current levels of skill and knowledge
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aptitude tests
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examine whether people will be good at various tasks in the future
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binet-simon intelligence scale
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a test for measuring children's vocabulary, memory, skill with numbers and other mental abilities
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mental age
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an assessment of a child's intellectual standing relative to that of his or her peers; determined by a comparison of the child's test score with the average for children of each chronological age
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intelligence quotient (IQ)
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the number computed by dividing a child's estimated mental age by the child's chronological age, and then multiplying this number by 100
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general intelligence (g)
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the idea that one general factor underlies all mental abilities
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fluid intelligence
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information processing in novel or complex circumstances
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crystallized intelligence
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knowledge acquired through experience and the ability to use that knowledge
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multiple intelligences
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the idea that people can show different skills in a variety of different domains
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analytical intelligence
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being good in problem solving, analogies, puzzles, and other academic challenges
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creative intelligence
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ability to gain insight and solve novel problems, to think in new and interesting ways
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practical intelligence
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understanding how people deal with everyday tasks
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emotional intelligence
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a form of social intelligence that emphasizes the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions to guide thoughts and actions
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acetylcholine
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affects motor control and mental processes, more of it increases memory
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dopamine
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control over motivation and reward, motor control and planning, not enough can lead to parkinson's disease
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serotonin
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mood, dreaming
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unipolar depression
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depressed mood, markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all or almost all activities, significant weight lose, insomnia or hypersomnia
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MAO inhibitors
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prevent breakdown of serotonin in the presynaptic neuron
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SSRIs
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prevent reuptake of serotonin by the presynaptic neuron
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electroconvulsive therapy
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electric shock treatments that often relieve severe depression by triggering seizures in the brain
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psychosurgery
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the surgical removal of portions of the brain for the purpose of treating psychological disorders
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What motivates behavior?
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needs (states of deficiency)
drives (psychological state) arousal |
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what is the structure for pleasure in the brain
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nuclues accumbens
-dopamine is released here |
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what determines how we eat?
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-time as set forth by society
- culture determines what is acceptable |
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what part of the brain is important for hunger?
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lateral and ventromedial areas of the hypothalamus
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what inhibits eating
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leptin, mice without it eat too much
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why do people use drugs?
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-negative reinforcement- drug use makes bad stuff go away
-positive reinforcement- drug use makes people feel good |
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cocaine blocks what reuptake
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dopamine
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James-Lange theory
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physical characteristics induce an emotion, not the other way around. if someone sees something scary, their heart starts beating fast and thus they feel the emotion of being scared or afraid
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cannon-bard theory
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physiology/behavior and experienced emotion are independently activated at the same time
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two factor theory
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emotion has 2 components, psychological component and cognitive interpretation
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facial feedback hypothesis
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changes in facial expression can produce corresponding changes in emotion
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which hemisphere is associated with positive and which is associated with negative emotion?
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left=positive
right=negative left is right is positive right is wrong is negative |
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what are the 2 pathways of detection of threat
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the fast low-amygdala
slow high-thalamus to cortex |
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core disgust
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based on a sense of offensiveness and the threat of contamination
(rotting foods, waste products, and small animals) |
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animal reminder disgust
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reflects the aversion of stimuli that serve as reminders of the animal origins of humans (bad sex acts, poor hygiene)
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consciousness
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an awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings that one is attending to at a given moment
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parasomnias
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sleep apnea
- repeated cessation of breathing during sleep -REM sleep behavior disorder (condition in which skeletal muscles aren't paralyzed in REM sleep) |
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continuity hypothesis
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dreams reflect waking life
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threat simulation
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dreams allow us to practice skills related to life
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activation-synthesis theory
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dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural signals that fire during sleep
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reverse learning theory
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dreams clean away cognitive debris
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what is changed in people who have schizophrenia
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lateral ventricles
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three predictive indicators of happiness
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social relationships
employment physical health |
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Hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis
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leads to secretion of cortisol, which mobilizes energy
-also has a suppressive effect on the immune system |
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locus coerules
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prompts release of norepinephrine, thus keeping the body physiologically aroused
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phenomenal consciousness
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subjective experience itself
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access consciousness
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awareness of experience
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restorative theory
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sleep recharges the batteries of our body, providing recovery from demands
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circadian rhythm theory
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conservation of energy and minimizing exposure to predators
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facilitation of learning
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circuits wired together during the day are consolidated
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sleep-wake cycle
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example of a circadian rhythm because it happens every 24 hours
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stages of sleep
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1. theta waves, easily awoken
2. "sleep spindles"- falling asleep 3. delta wave, deep sleep, hard to wake up 4. more delta waves, hard to wake up except when important 5. REM sleep, crazy dreaming |
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how many episodes of REM are there everynight
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4-5
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how do we fall asleep?
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-superchiasmatic nucleus talks to pineal gland
-pineal gland oozes out melatonin |
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how is REM triggered
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triggered by Acetylcholine in pons, limbic system has the most activity, prefrontal cortex deactivation
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factors that reduce the risk of depression
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social support, exercise
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spearman's theory of intelligence
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different abilities, but there's a common factor between them
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general adaptation syndrome
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1. alarm
2. resistance 3. exhaustion |
