Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
176 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Basic in-born reflex Love
|
Babies respond to human faces and voices
Drive or need to belong Joy with social attachment and grief with separation |
|
|
Need for affiliation
|
Optimal balance
Provides energy, attention, stimulation, information, and emotional support Under conditions of stress - increases |
|
|
Loneliness
|
Discrepancy in desire and amount
Or just low level of contact leads to loneliness High levels during transitions and disruptions Risk factor |
|
|
Initial attraction
|
Reward – attention, money, status, …
Or indirect rewards Familiarity Proximity – first step Exposure – mere exposure effect Physical attractiveness General conceptions Changing perceptions Why bias? |
|
|
Getting acquainted
|
Similarity – birds of a feather or opposites attract
Similarity in demographics and attitudes OR discard dissimilar |
|
|
BIRDS OF A FEATHER
|
Getting acquainted continued
Liking others who like us Reciprocity Hard to get - but not too hard! |
|
|
Close relationships
|
Social exchange theory – maximize gains and minimize costs
More satisfying and last longer Rewards – love, companionship, consolation, sex Costs – work to maintain, conflict, compromise, sacrifice |
|
|
Close relationships continued
|
Three components of love:
Intimacy Passion Commitment Passionate love – romantic love which is high in arousal, intense attraction, and fear of rejection Companionate love – secure, trusting, affectionate relationship based on caring, friendship, and longterm commitment |
|
|
How stereotypes form
|
Past events
Slavery Attack on Pearl Harbor Political perspective Group in power rationalizes Sociocultural perspective Real differences |
|
|
Two processes
|
Categorization
Ingroup vs. Outgroup |
|
|
Social categorization
|
Form impressions quickly
Past experience guide new interactions Make inferences about new people Drawbacks Over and underestimate Person doesn’t fit stereotype Think rigidly about groups |
|
|
Ingroup vs. Outgroup
|
US vs THEM
Exaggerate differences Outgroup homogeneity effect Why? Don’t have a lot of personal contact Often don’t see a representative sample |
|
|
How survive and self-perpetuate
|
Illusory correlation – overestimate link
Distinctive behaviors Overestimate when expect to occur Attributions Subtyping and contrast effects E.g. “career women” Martha Stewart Confirmation biases and self fulfilling prophecies |
|
|
Inevitable? Automatic?
|
Influenced by amount of exposure
Kind and amount of information influences Motivation influences Self esteem threat Supression |
|
|
Prejudice
|
Stereotype and prejudice – related and yet distinct
Negative feelings toward people based on membership in a group |
|
|
Intergroup coflict
|
Realistic conflict theory
Competition for resources But more prejudice than competition Relative deprivation Group being threatened |
|
|
Social identity theory
|
Favor ingroup as way to enhance self esteem
Derive pride from affiliation Predictions: Threat to self esteem need for ingroup favoritism Ingroup favoritism self esteem |
|
|
Reducing stereotype and prejudice
|
Direct contact
Brown vs. Board of education Desegregation Four critical conditions: Equal status Personal interaction Cooperative activities Social norms |
|
|
Reaction to person, object, or an idea
|
Often automatic or instantaneous
Quick and without much thought But may be resistant to change |
|
|
Attitudes and behaviors
|
Strength of attitude may influence
Genetics Hold dear; deeply held beliefs; concern to others Well informed Personal experience Attack against position Accessible to awareness |
|
|
Changing attitudes
|
Persuasion by communication
Persuasion by action |
|
|
Persuasion by communication
|
Dual process model of communication
Central route Peripheral route |
|
|
Central route
|
Content
Strength and quality of message Learn content and be motivated to accept it Perhaps elaborate on it |
|
|
Peripheral route
|
Don’t think critically
Attend to other cues Speaks well and has good reputation |
|
|
Which route chosen – depends on ability and motivation to take central route vs. reliance on peripheral route
|
Which route chosen – depends on ability and motivation to take central route vs. reliance on peripheral route
|
|
|
Route chosen also depends on
|
Source of communication
Message audience |
|
|
Source
|
Credibility –
Who Competent Expertise Trustworthy Likeability Similarity and attractiveness |
|
|
Message
|
Informational strategies – presentation match to route of processing
Message discrepancy – how discrepant from current position? |
|
|
Message
|
Fear appeals
Positive emotions Activate peripheral route Can’t think about argument Assume all is good Don’t want to think critically |
|
|
Audience
|
Not consistent
Need for cognition - central vs. peripheral route Self monitoring – how others perceive Resistance – defend position |
|
|
Persuasion by action
|
Cognitive dissonance theory
Desire for consistency Distress Change attitude to be consistent with behavior |
|
|
Classic study – Festinger
|
No lie – Boring!
$20 – still pretty boring! $1 - Enjoyable Justifying effort – justify why put the effort in Justify difficult decision |
|
|
New thoughts on cognitive dissonance
|
Appearing consistent rather than being consistent
Self esteem – change attitudes to repair damage to self esteem |
|
|
Self concept
|
The sum total of beliefs that people have about themselves
|
|
|
Influence of the self
|
Self schemas – views of self influence information processing
Many Self recognition Ability to incorporate others’ views |
|
|
Monitor own behavior
|
Self perception theory – consistency between behaviors and perceptions
Emotions Body posture |
|
|
Self perceptions and motivation
|
Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation
For sake of interest or enjoyment etc. Result of award outside self Lepper study Individual differences? |
|
|
Influence of others
|
Factors that set them apart from other people
Social comparison theory – Festinger When true – uncertainty With whom – similar |
|
|
Evaluation of emotions or emotional responses
Two factor theory of emotion Physiology Cognitive interpretation |
Evaluation of emotions or emotional responses
Two factor theory of emotion Physiology Cognitive interpretation |
|
|
Self Esteem
|
Affective component of the self that consists of people’s positive and negative self evaluations
|
|
|
Stability vs. change
Level may depend on self schema domain |
Stability vs. change
Level may depend on self schema domain |
|
|
Differences based on group
|
Males higher than females
AA > W > L, AsA, NA Why? |
|
|
Self discrepancy
|
Self view vs. ought to be and ideally would be
Closer higher SE Importance of domain impact Focus on the discrepancy has impact |
|
|
How to self enhance
|
Most often see self positively
Self serving cognitions Self handicapping Purposefully sabotage performance Downward social comparison Self defense Affiliate with people in same situation doing well but compare self to others doing worse |
|
|
Self presentation
|
Try to shape what others think of us and what we think of ourselves
Worry about others impression Overestimate degree they are paid attention to |
|
|
Strategic self presentation
|
Shape other image in order to gain influence, power, sympathy or approval
Easier when consistent with own self view Ingratiating or self promoting May influence behavior negatively Self verification processes Seen as you see yourself Even when see yourself negatively |
|
|
May depend on degree of self monitoring
|
Differences between high and low self monitors
High self monitors - learn who they are interacting with and rules for context Better performance ratings, more promotions, seen as leaders See self in positive light Risk others seeing them as manipulative Low self monitors consistent across situations |
|
|
How do we understand and perceive other people?
|
3 sources of information …
The person The situation Behavior of the person |
|
|
The person
|
Appearance
Attire Facial features |
|
|
Situations
|
In your notebook write down the steps that occur in a “first date”
Most people have the same SCRIPT for how a first date should go Male arrives Female greets male at door Female introduces Male to parents or roommate Discuss plans and make small talk Go to a movie Get something to drink or eat Male takes Female home If interested mentions another date Male gives Female a kiss Say goodnight |
|
|
Situations
|
“Rules” for how certain scenarios go
More experience quicker ordering and better understanding Easily judge other’s behavior |
|
|
Behavior
|
Use behavior to judge emotion
Also non-verbal behavioral cues Facial cues Body language Eye contact or gaze |
|
|
Also use attributions as a way of understanding others
|
Two theories
Correspondent Inference Theory Covariation Theory |
|
|
Correspondent Inference Theory
|
Understand others by observing and analyzing behavior
3 inferences contribute to analysis – Choice Expectedness Intended effects |
|
|
Covariation Theory
|
Use to distinguish between personal and situational factors behavior
In order for behavior to be attributed to x then x must be present when behavior occurs and absent when it does not Seek … Consensus information Distinctive information Consistency of information |
|
|
But … attributional biases
|
Shortcuts inaccurate judgments
Cognitive heuristics – information processing rules of thumb to make quick judgements Availability heuristic May lead to false consensus effect or base rate fallacy Fundamental attributional bias Overestimate individual and underestimate context |
|
|
Integration of material gathered about people
|
Information integration theory
Person making perception has an effect Priming Ease of perceiving information Context Implicit personality theory Primacy effect |
|
|
Confirmation biases
|
Tendency to interpret, seek, and create information that confirms existing beliefs
Confirmatory hypothesis testing – seek consistent information Self fulfilling prophecy – expectations lead to the fulfillment of these 3 steps: Perceiving forms initial impression Perceiver acts in accordance with impression Target person’s behavior becomes consistent with impression |
|
|
Accuracy of perceptions and under what circumstances are they best?
|
More experience with each other more accuracy
Not good at global predictions but better at specific predictions regarding behavior Can teach people logic and probability as a means for improving social perceptions Motivated by accuracy and open-mindedness leads to more accuracy |
|
|
Why do people help?
|
Evolutionary factors
Increase likelihood of survival Preserve genes Kinship selection Rewarding When higher than cost Arousal cost/reward model Feel good about self |
|
|
Why continued …
|
Altruism (increase someone else’s welfare) or motivated by egoistic desire (selfish concerns)?
Easy to escape helping and helping decreases then motive is egoistic BUT easy to escape helping and still help then altruistic Empathy Escape |
|
|
When do people help?
|
Bystander effect
What effect helping behavior? Noticing Interpreting Taking responsibility – diffusion Deciding how to help – feel qualified? Provide help – Audience inhibition Or increase helping because in crowd |
|
|
If you need help how to get it?
|
Be clear you need help
Single out one person |
|
|
Impact of location and culture –
Less likely in urban setting Stimulation overload or desensitization Less homogeneity or empathy Greater anonymity Impact on mood Better mood may be more likely to help Bad mood also may be more likely to help |
Impact of location and culture –
Less likely in urban setting Stimulation overload or desensitization Less homogeneity or empathy Greater anonymity Impact on mood Better mood may be more likely to help Bad mood also may be more likely to help |
|
|
Who is likely to help?
|
Stable differences over time and situation
Genetic Specific to situation High on empathy and moral reasoning Children high on both more helping behavior |
|
|
Who do people help?
|
Attractive
Friendly Attributions of responsibility Person is trying Difficulty not their responsibility or fault Person similar to us Familiar vs. strangers |
|
|
Introduction to social psychology
|
Individual beliefs, attitudes, behaviors
Different than sociology Individual within group |
|
|
Imitation
|
Imitate without much thought or feeling much conflict
Leads to smoother interactions |
|
|
Conformity
|
Particular type of imitation
Change perceptions, opinions, behavior to be consistent with group norm Everyday all conform Challenge – break group norm |
|
|
Early studies
|
Asch
Length of the line judged Sherif Distance of light movement judged Why Informational influence Want to be right Normative influence Fear consequences of appearing deviant |
|
|
What contributes …
|
Size of group
Understanding of norm Ally Not gender Culture |
|
|
Compliance
|
Social influence in which explicit requests are made
How request is made has an effect Talk fast Sound informed Make unusual request |
|
|
Compliance …
|
Norm of reciprocity – treat others as they have treated us
Fill in here picture of raffle tickets and cokes Sequential request tactics – ask for small thing initially and larger one later Door in the face technique – make initial request which is large and will be rejected and come back with a smaller and more reasonable request That’s not all technique – more likely to comply when feel the deal has been sweetened |
|
|
Obedience
|
Milgram study
65% administered full shock Same level of obedience men and women Personality characteristics But also – Setting and authority Separated from victim Lack of responsibility for pain Gradual increase of shock |
|
|
Application to today
|
Prison scandal - Abu Ghraib
|
|
|
Aggression
|
Causes
Drive Behavioral genetics Genetics Stable Twin and adoptive studies Learning Bandura – get what you want? Do it again! |
|
|
Can punishment reduce aggression?
Inconsistent – then create coercive cycle. Bandura – social learning theory – observing aggression leads to heightened aggression. Socialization - gender |
Can punishment reduce aggression?
Inconsistent – then create coercive cycle. Bandura – social learning theory – observing aggression leads to heightened aggression. Socialization - gender |
|
|
Frustration hypothesis – when something gets in way of goal aggression
School shootings Negative affect Heat arousal |
Frustration hypothesis – when something gets in way of goal aggression
School shootings Negative affect Heat arousal |
|
|
“Groups can be quite different than the sum of their parts”
|
“Groups can be quite different than the sum of their parts”
|
|
|
A group is a set of individuals who …
|
Direct interactions
Joint membership in social category based on race, sex, or other attribute Share common fate, identity, or set of goals |
|
|
Process
|
Social facilitation
Social loafing Less likely when … Individual performance can be identified Task is meaningful to person Efforts necessary for group to succeed Group punished for poor performance Group is small Group is cohesive Less likely among women then men in collectivist cultures If meaningful will compensate If not or don’t believe can have much effect loaf |
|
|
Deindividualization
|
one path to losing control
2 environmental cues Accountability cue Attention cue |
|
|
Group influence on opinion …
|
Group polarization – group and discussion to exaggerate initial leaning of group
Persuasive argument theory Number and persuasiveness of argument Groupthink – seek concurrence in group Agreement takes priority over accuracy Cohesiveness Group structure Stressful situation |
|
|
Example of the Bay of Pigs …
|
In order to avoid …
Consult with outsiders Reduce pressure to conform Create procedure for critical review Increase diversity within group Make members believe they are responsible for decisions |
|
|
helping behavior
|
an act that is intended to benefit another person
|
|
|
altruism
|
an unselfish concern for another's welfare
|
|
|
Altruism
Cost-Reward Theory |
Proposes that people find the sight of a victim distressing and anxiety provoking, and that this experience motivates them to do something about the unpleasant arousal
|
|
|
one of the factors leading to whether one is helped or not is the
|
clarity of the need for help, which has a major impact on whether people provide help
|
|
|
presence of others
|
the more people around, the less likely one is to help
|
|
|
bystander effect
|
a phenomenon in which the chance that someone will help in an emergency decrease as the number of people present increases
|
|
|
diffusion of responsibility
|
thinking that someone else will help when in a large group
|
|
|
personality of the helper
|
some people are just more likely to help than others
|
|
|
environmental factors
|
people in urban areas are less likely to help than those in rural areas
|
|
|
altruism
empathy-altruism theory |
a theory suggesting that people help others because of empathy with their needs
|
|
|
altruism
evolutionary theory |
many human social behaviors are echoes of actions that contributed to the survival of our prehistoric ancestors
|
|
|
cooperation
|
any type of behavior in which people work together to attain a common goal
|
|
|
competition
|
trying to attain a goal for themselves while denying that goal for others
|
|
|
conflict
|
when one person or group believes that another stands in the way of achieving a goal
|
|
|
social dilemas
|
situations in which an action that produces reqards for one individual will, if adopted by all others, produce negative consequences for everyone
|
|
|
prisoners dilema
|
two people are separated for questioning immediately after being arrested on suspicion of having committed a serious crime. The prosecutor believes they are guilty but doesnt have enough evidence to convict them. Each prisoner can either confess or not, but they are told that if they both refus to confess, each will be convicted of a minor offense and will be jailed for one year. If they both confess, the proseutor will recommend a five year sentence for each. If one prisoner remains silent and the other confesses to what they did, the prosecutor will allow the confessing prisoner to go free, whereas the other will serve a ten year
best mutual outcome will be appreciated |
|
|
mixed-motive conflict
|
there are good reasons to cooperate and good reasons to compete
|
|
|
resource dilemas
|
built-in conflicts between the interests of the individual and those of the group, as well as between both short and long term interests
|
|
|
commons dilema
|
people have to decide how much to take from a common resource
|
|
|
public goods dilemma
|
people must decide how much to contribute to a common resource
|
|
|
task oriented leader
|
a leader who provides close supervision, leads by directives, and generally discourages group discussion
|
|
|
person oriented leader
|
a leader who provides loose supervision, asks for group member ideas and is concerned with subordinates feelings
|
|
|
groupthink
|
occurs when group members are unable to realistically evaluate the options available to them or to fully consider the potential negative consequences of the option they are considering
|
|
|
social influence
|
the process whereby one person's behavior is affected by the words or actions of others
|
|
|
norms
|
socially based rules that prescribe what people should or should not do in various situations
|
|
|
descriptive norms
|
indicate how most other people actually behave in a given situation
|
|
|
injunctive norms
|
give more specific information about the actions that others find acceptable and those they find unnacceptable
|
|
|
deindividuation
|
a psychological state occurring in group members that results in loss of individuality and a tendency to do things not normally done when alone
|
|
|
reciprocity
|
the tendency to respond to others as they have acted toward you
|
|
|
social facilitation
|
a phenomenon in which the presence of others improves a person's performance
|
|
|
social impairment
|
a reduction in performance due to the presence of other people
|
|
|
social loafing
|
exerting less effort when performing a group task than when performing the same task alone
|
|
|
conformity
|
changing one's behavior or beliefs to match those of others, generally as a result of real or imagined though unspoken, group pressure
|
|
|
compliance
|
adjusting one's behavior because of an explicit or implicit request
|
|
|
autokinetic phenomenon
|
light illusion in the dark(sherif)
|
|
|
why do people conform?
|
they displayed public conformity, giving an answer they did not believe simply because it was the socially desirable thing to do, or they experienced private acceptance, changing their own reality to suit others judements
|
|
|
When do people conform?
|
Ambiguous situations
unamity, if the rest of the group says something, you will conform, but if one other person goes against the rest of the group you too will follow them |
|
|
foot-in-the-door
|
getting a person to agree to a small request, then gradually working your way up
|
|
|
door-in-the-face
|
asking for a favor that is likely to be denied, then asking for a smaller favor that you really wanted
|
|
|
low-ball
|
getting a commitment to do something at a certain cost
|
|
|
obedience
|
the behavior changes come in response to a demand from an authority figure
|
|
|
social psychology
|
the study of how people's thoughts and feelings and behavior influence, and are influenced by, the behavior of others
|
|
|
social cognition
|
mental processes associated with people's perceptions of, and reactions to, other people
|
|
|
self-concept
|
the way one thinks of oneself
|
|
|
self-esteem
|
the evaluations people make about how worthy they are as human beings
|
|
|
temporal comparison
|
using one's pervious performance or characteristics as a basis for judging oneself in the present
|
|
|
social influence
|
we describe how social factors affect individuals, helping to shape behaviors that range from despicable acts of agression to heroism and self sacrifice
|
|
|
self-evaluation
|
two types of questions, those that can be answered by taking objective measurements, and those that cannot
|
|
|
social comparison
|
using other people as a basis of comparison for evaluating oneself
|
|
|
reference groups
|
categories of people to which people compare themselves
|
|
|
relative deprivation
|
the belief that, in comparison to a reference group, one is getting less then they deserve
|
|
|
downward social comparisons
|
comparing to those who are not as good as they are
|
|
|
upward social comparison
|
comparing themselves to those who are much better
|
|
|
personal identity
|
how one views themselves
|
|
|
social identity
|
the beliefs we hold about the groups to which we belong
|
|
|
self-schemas
|
mental representations that people form of themselves
|
|
|
social perception
|
the process through which people interpret information about others, draw inferences about them, and develop mental representations of them
|
|
|
self schemas
|
help people organize and process incoming information
|
|
|
schemas
|
interpretation of information is done through schemas
characteristics that are consistent get more attention then those that are inconsistent schemas influence what we remember about others |
|
|
self-fulfilling prophecy
|
a process through which an initial impression of someone leads to that person to behave in accordance with that impression
|
|
|
attribution
|
the process of explaining the causes of people's behavior, including their own
|
|
|
understand your classmate's behavior
|
predict control
|
|
|
sources of attributions
|
consenus
consistency distinctiveness |
|
|
fundamental attribution error
|
a bias toward over attributing the behavior of others to internal causes
|
|
|
actor-observer bias
|
the tendency to attribute other people's behavior to internal causes while attributing our own behavior to external causes
|
|
|
self-serving bias
|
the tendency to take personal credit for succes, but to blame external factors for failure
|
|
|
attitude
|
a predisposition toward a particular cognitive, emotional, or behavioral reaction to objects
|
|
|
elaboration likelihood model
|
a model suggesting that attitude change can be drive by evaluation of the content of a persuasive message(central route) or by irrelevant persuasion cues(peripheral route)
|
|
|
attitudes can be influenced
|
by classical and operant conditioning
|
|
|
mere-exposure effect
|
all things equal attitudes toward an object will become more positive the more frequently people are exposed to it
|
|
|
two routes to attitude change
|
based on 3 factors
1)the person communicating the message 2)the content of the message 3)the audience who recieves the message |
|
|
peripheral route
|
when activated, we devote little attention to the central content of the persuasive message
|
|
|
persuasion cues
|
such as confidence, attractiveness, etc
|
|
|
central route
|
the content of the message becomes more important than the characteristics
|
|
|
cognitive dissonance theory
|
a theory asserting that attitude change is driven by efforts to reduce tension caused by inconsistencies between attitudes and behaviors
|
|
|
self-perception theory
|
a theory suggesting that attitudes can change as people consider their behavior in certain situation and then infer what their situation must be
|
|
|
behavior attitude inconsistency will produce attitude change when
|
1. the inconsistency causes some distress or discomfort
2. changing attitudes will reduce this distress or discomfort |
|
|
stereotypes
|
the perceptions, beliefs and expectations a person has about some members of a group
|
|
|
most common and powerful stereotypes are
|
based on observable personality attributes, particularly ethnicity, gender, and age
|
|
|
prejudice
|
a positive or negative attitude toward an entire group of people
|
|
|
discrimination
|
differential treatment of various groups, the behavioral competent of prejudice
|
|
|
social categories
|
a way of dealing with social complexity
|
|
|
contact hypothesis
|
the idea that stereotypes and prejudice toward a group will diminish as contact with the group increases
|
|
|
matching hypothesis
|
the notion that people are most likely to form relationships with those who are similar to themselves in physical attractiveness
|
|
|
interdependent
|
people who are attracted to each other have thoughts, emotions, and behaviors have affect those of the other
|
|
|
passionate love
|
intense, arousing, and marked by both stong physical attraction and deep emotional attachment
|
|
|
compassionate love
|
less arousing but psychologically more intimate
|
|
|
triangular theory of love
|
passion, intimacy, and commitment
|
|
|
romantic love
|
high degree of passion and intimacy
|
|
|
companionate love
|
intimacy and commitment
|
|
|
consummate love
|
high level of all three
|
|
|
festinger $20 study
|
asked people to turn pegs in a board, later some people were asked to convince others that this task was fun. some were told that they would be paid $1 to lie and others $20.the people who were paid $1 to lie liked the dull task more than those who were paid $20. F argued that telling another person that a boring task is enjoyable will produce dissonance. To reduce this dissonance, the people who were paid just $1 adopted a favorable attitude toward this task, making their cognitions consistent. But if a person has adequate justification for the behavior, any dissonance that exists will be reduced simply by thinking about the justification for lying
|
