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89 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What was the neutral stimulus in the office?
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The windows sound
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- Who was known for the theory of repression?
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o Sigmond Freund
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- What is classical conditioning?
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o Learning to associate two stimuli
Have to happen close together in time One has to appear to predict the other o A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. |
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- What is the UCS? UCR? CS? CR? Be able to identify each in examples of classical conditioning.
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o UCS – Unconditioned Stimulus
Stimulus that unconditionally, automatically and naturally, triggers a response. o UCR – Unconditioned Response Unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus. o CS – Conditioned stimulus Originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response. o CR – Conditioned Response Learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus. |
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Acquisition
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Initial stage
Neutral stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. Other examples: taste aversions, smoking cessations techniques |
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o Extinction
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Diminished CR
An UCS does not follow a CS |
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o Spontaneous recovery
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Reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR
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o Generalization
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Tendency for stimuli similar to CS to elicit similar responses
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o Discrimination
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The learned ability to distinguished between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal an UCS
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- Who was Pavlov and what did he contribute to psychology?
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o Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physician/ neurophysiologist
o Nobel prize in 1904 o Did classical conditioning |
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- Who was Watson and what did he contribute to psychology?
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o John Watson did Behaviorism
o Viewed psychology as objective science Generally accepted o Recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes Not universally accepted |
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- What is associative learning?
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o Learning that two events occur together
Stimuli or a stimulus, response and its consequences |
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- What is associative learning?
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o Learning that two events occur together
Stimuli or a stimulus, response and its consequences |
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- What is operant conditioning & why differ from CC?
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o A type of conditioning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
o Differs from classical conditioning because operant behavior operates on the environment, producing consequences. |
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- What is the law of effect and how does it relate to operant conditioning
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o From Thorndike
o Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely; behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. |
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- Who was Skinner and what did he contribute to psychology?
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o Did operant conditioning
o Law of effect (rewarded behavior is likely to recur) |
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- What is shaping?
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o Operant conditioning procedure; reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of a desired goal.
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- What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers?
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o Primary reinforcer – an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.
o Secondary (Conditioned) reinforcer – a stimulus that gains it reinforcing power through association with a primary reinforcer. |
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- What is the difference between continuous and partial/intermittent reinforcement schedules?
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o Continuous – reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs (like Sniffy)
o Partial/Intermittent – reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction. |
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fixed-ratio schedule
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reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses (piecework pay)
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Variable-ratio?
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reinforces response after an unpredictable number of responses (gambling)
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Fixed-interval
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reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed (checking for cookies)
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Variable-interval
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reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals (getting e-mail)
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- What is punishment? How does positive punishment differ from negative? How does punishment differ from reinforcement
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o Punishment – opposite to that of reinforcement. Reinforcement increases a behavior; punishment decreases it.
o Positive punishment – administer an aversive stimulus (spanking; a parking ticket) o Negative punishment – withdraw a desirable stimulus (time-out form privileges such as TV; revoked driver’s license. |
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- What are intrinsic and extrinsic motivations? And how do they relate to learning?
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o Intrinsic motivation – a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
o Extrinsic motivation – a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats, or punishment. o Relates to Latent learning Occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. |
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- What is observational learning
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o Learning by observing others
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- What is modeling
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o The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
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- What are mirror neurons and how do they relate to observational learning
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o Fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so.
o May enable children to learn simply by observation how to mime lip and tongue movements when forming new words. o Mirror neurons may also help give rise to children’s empathy and to their theory of mind. |
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- What did Albert Bandura contribute to psychology, and, specifically, the study of observational learning?
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o Did the study of children and the Bobo doll
o Compared with children not exposed to the adult model, those who observed the model’s aggressive outburst were much more likely to lash out at the doll. o We are especially likely to imitate those we perceive as similar to ourselves, as successful, or as admirable. |
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- What are flashbulb memories?
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o A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
Example, where you were on 9/11 |
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- What is encoding? Storage? Retrieval?
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o Encoding – The processing of information into the memory system
o Storage – The retention of encoding information out of memory o Retrieval – The process of getting information out of memory |
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- What is sensory memory? Short-term memory? Long-term memory? How are they related?
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o Sensory memory – The immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system
o Short-term memory – Activated memory that holds a few items briefly Working-memory – focuses more on processing of briefly stored information o Long-term memory – The relatively permanent and limitless storage of the memory system. |
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- What is rehearsal
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o Conscious repetition of information
To maintain it in consciousness To encode it for storage |
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- What is the spacing effect? The serial position effect?
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o Spacing effect – distributed practice yields better long-term retention than massed practiced
o Serial position effect – tendency to recall best the last items in a list |
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- What are mnemonics? How might they help you prepare for the exam?
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o Memory aids
o Especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. o Study through notecards, relationships and so on. |
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- What is chunking
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o Organizing items into familiar, manageable units
o Often occurs automatically o How we remember phone numbers, addresses |
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iconic memory
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– a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
A photo/picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second “Magical” number is 7 |
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o Echoic memory
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momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
Short-term memory is limited in duration and capacity |
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o Implicit memory
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retention independent of conscious recollection
Also called procedural memory (like how to ride a bike) |
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o Explicit memory
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– memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare
Also called declarative memory (dates of events |
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- What is the role of the hippocampus in memory? The cerebellum?
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o Hippocampus – neural center in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
o Cerebellum – processes implicit memory |
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- What is priming? What are context effects? How might both be related to déjà vu?
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o Priming – “memory-loss memory" Activation of particular associations in memory (usually done unconsciously)
o Context effects – to put yourself back in the context where you experienced something. You return to where you once lived or to the school you once attended and are flooded with retrieval cues and memories. o Déjà vu – cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience (“I’ve been here before…”) |
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- What is mood congruent memory
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o Tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood
Memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues |
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- What are the two main explanations for why/how forgetting occurs?
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o Forgetting as an encoding failure
o Information never enters long-term memory Can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory |
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- What is the difference between proactive and retroactive interference in forgetting?
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o Proactive interference – (forward acting) disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information
o Retroactive interference – (backwards acting) disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information |
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- What is the misinformation effect?
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o Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
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- What is source amnesia?
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o Attributing an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined to the wrong source.
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- What are some tips for improving memory listed in the text and discussed in class?
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o Study repeatedly to boost recall, rehearsing.
o Make material personally meaningful o Activate retrieval cures, mentally recreate situation and mood o Use mnemonic devices o Minimize interference. |
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- What are concepts
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o Mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
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o Algorithm
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math, go through combinations
Methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier, but also more error-prone-use of heuristics |
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o Heuristic
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look, guess and check
Simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently Usually speedier than algorithms More error-prone than algorithms |
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o Insight
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sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
Contrasts with strategy based solution. |
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o Representativeness heuristic
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judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes.
May lead one to ignore other relevant information Sometimes contributes to stereotyping |
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o Availability heuristic
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estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
If instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common (example: airplane crashes) |
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o Confirmation bias
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tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions
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o Overconfidence
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tendency to be more confident than correct
Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments |
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- What is functional fixedness
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o Tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
Impediment to problem solving |
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- What is a mental set
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o A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem.
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- What is framing
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o The way an issue is posed
o How an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments Example: a global struggle against the enemies of freedom” |
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What is belief perseverance
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o Clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
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- What defines each stage of language acquisition: babbling, one-word, two-word, and telegraphic?
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o Babbling – about three to four months
Infant spontaneously utters various sounds (unrelated to the household language) o One-word – from age 1-2 Stage in speech development during which a child speaks in single words o Two-word – around age two Child speaks in mostly two word statements o Telegraphic – early speech stage in which the child speaks like a telegram, “go car”, using mostly nouns and verbs while omitting “auxiliary” (nonessential) words. |
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What is linguistic determinism
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o Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we thing
o Now believed to be an interplay between thoughts and language |
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Why is the relationship between thought and language believed to be circular?
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o Language influences what we think
o To expand language is to expand the ability to the ink. o Thinking develops hand in hand with language o We think in images o Thinking affects our language, which then affects our thought |
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What is g
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o General intelligence
o Omnipresent factor that Spearman and others believed underlies specific mental abilities o Measured by every task on an intelligence test |
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What is savant syndrome
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o A condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing.
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What is emotional intelligence
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o The ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions.
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Who was Binet and what were his contributions to intelligence testing
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o Wrote the first intelligence test
o The Stanfort-Binet test is widely used as the American Revision of Binet’s original intelligence test. |
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What was the original formula for IQ
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o The ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100
o On contemporary tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100 |
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How do aptitude and achievement tests differ
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o Aptitude – test designed to predict a person’s future performance
Aptitude is the capacity to learn o Achievement – designed to assess what a person has learned |
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What is the WAIS? What are its two types of subtests
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o WAIS is Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
Most widely used intelligence test Has verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests |
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What is standardization
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o Defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pre-tested “standardization group”
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What is the normal or “bell” curve
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o The symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the destribution of many physical and psychological attributes
o Most scores fall near average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes. |
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Reliability
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the extent to which a test yields consistent results
Assessed by consistence of scores on both halves of the test, retesting |
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Validity
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the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is suppose to.
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Content validity
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the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest
Driving test that samples driving tasks |
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What is stereotype threat and how does it apply to intelligence
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o A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on negative stereotype
Thus, women score higher on math tests with no men present. Blacks score higher when tested by blacks than whites. |
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What does the text generally conclude about the heritability of intelligence?
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o Genetically similar people have the most similar scores.
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- What is the James-Lange theory of emotion
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Experience of emotions follows awareness of physiological responses to emotion-arousing stiuli
Sight of oncoming car = hear pounding = fear |
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o Cannon-Bard
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emotion-arousing stimuli simultaneously trigger physiological responses and experience of emotion
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o Schacter’s two –factor theory
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to experience emotion you must be physically aroused and cognitively label arousal.
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- What physiological changes accompany emotions? Do different emotions activate different physiological responses?
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o Emotions cause organisms to respond in 3 main ways:
Physiological arousal Expressive behaviors Conscious experience |
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- How do we communicate nonverbally
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o Facial expressions
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- Do facial expressions influence our experienced emotions
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o People more quickly detect an angry face than a happy one
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- What is a catharsis
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o Emotional release
o Catharsis hypothesis “Releasing” aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges |
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- What is the feel-good, do-good phenomenon/What is subjective well-being?
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o People’s tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood (or feel-bad, do-bad)
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- What is general adaptation syndrome? What three adaptive responses comprise GAS?
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o Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three stages
Alarm reaction (mobilize resources) Resistance (cope with stressor) Exhaustion (reserves depleted) |
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- How is coronary heart disease linked with stress? How does stress make us more vulnerable to disease?
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o Clogging of the vessels that nourish the hearth muscle
o Leading cause of death in many developed countries o Linked with type A personalities o Type A personality – competitive, hard-driving impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people |
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- What is biofeedback
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o System for electronically recording, amplifying, and monitoring information regarding a physiological stage
Blood pressure Muscle tensions |
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- What are the following activities/topics related to the promotion of health: aerobic exercise, social support, spirituality and faith
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o Aerobic exercise – sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness.
o Social support – relaxing, helps calm down type A personality o Faith – promotes social support and other healthy behaviors that lead to better health. |