Psych Exam 2

Front 1

Describe the three basic human memory processes of encoding, storage and retrieval.

Back 1

Encoding: forming a memory code (how it looks, how it sounds), requires attention
Storage: maintaining encoded information in memory over time
Retrieval: recovering information from memory stores

Front 2

How does attention affect memory?

Back 2

You must pay attention to remember something. Attention acts as a filter that has a flexible location (before or after the brain has processed the meaning of the input)

Front 3

Describe the three types of encoding discussed by Craik and Lockhart and how depth of processing relates to memory.

Back 3

When dealing with verbal information the three stages are:
Structural: emphasizes the physical structure of stimulus
Phonemic:emphasizes what a word sounds like
Semantic: emphasizes the meaning of verbal input
Deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory

Front 4

Describe three techniques for enriching encoding

Back 4

Elaboration: enhances semantic encoding by linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding
Visual Imagery: enhances encoding by creating visual images to represent the words to be remembered
Self-Referent Encoding: involves deciding how or whether information is personally relevant

Front 5

Describe sensory memory

Back 5

preserves information in its original sensory form for a fraction of a second

Front 6

Discuss the characteristics of short-term memory.

Back 6

limited capacity: 7 plus or minus 2
can maintain unrehearsed info for up to 20 seconds

Front 7

Describe Baddeley’s model of working memory.

Back 7

Phonological loop: rehearsal
Visuospatial sketchpad: temporarily hold and manipulate visual images
Central executive: controls attention & coordinates actions of other modules
Episodic buffer: allows various components of working memory to integrate information & serves as an interface between working memory & LTM

Front 8

Describe the point of view that LTM is stored permanently and evidence supporting it

Back 8

forgetting only occurs because people cannot retrieve the info from LTM
Penfield found that electrical stimulation of the temporal lobe sometimes elicited vivid long lost memories
Flashbulb memories are unusually vivid and detailed memories of momentous events

Front 9

How do flashbulb memories compare with non flashbulb memories in accuracy?

Back 9

although patients are more confident in the accuracy of flashbulb memories over non-flashbulb memories, when tested there is no difference

Front 10

Describe conceptual hierarchies, schemas, and semantic networks, and their role in long-term memory.

Back 10

Conceptual hierarchy: multilevel classification system based on common properties among items, can improve recall dramatically
Schemas: organized cluster of knowledge about a particular event or object compiled from previous experience, people are more likely to remember things that are consistant with schemas, but they may also remember things that are shockingly different from their schemas as well
Semantic networks: nodes representing concepts joined by pathways, explains why thinking about one word makes it easier to remember a closely related word

Front 11

Explain how parallel distributed processing (PDP) or connectionist models view the representation of information in memory.

Back 11

specific memories correspond to particular patterns of activation in neural networks

Front 12

Explain how retrieval cues and context cues influence retrieval.

Back 12

retrieval cues are stimuli that help gain access to memories
context clues help to recall an event by putting yourself back in the context in which it occurred

Front 13

Discuss Bartlett’s work, and describe the phenomenon of the misinformation effect and imagination inflation.

Back 13

Bartlett asked subjects to read a story then recall it after 15 minutes, he found that subjects changed the tale and introduced new elements
Misinformation effect: when particpants recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading postevent info
Imagination inflation: impact of imagining an experience on memory

Front 14

Describe source monitoring, who did research on source monitory and describe reality monitoring

Back 14

Source monitoring: recalling where the memory came from
Reality monitoring: deciding whether memories are based on actual events or imagined
Marcia Johnson

Front 15

Describe Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve.

Back 15

forgetting curve graphs retention and forgetting over time, Ebbinghaus concluded that most forgetting occurs very rapidly after learning something

Front 16

Describe 3 measures of retention.

Back 16

Recall: requires subjects to reproduce info on their own without clues
Recognition: requires subjects to select previously learned info from an array of options
Relearning: requires a subject to memorize info a second time

Front 17

Explain how forgetting may be due to ineffective encoding.

Back 17

information may never have been inserted in the memory in the first place, or encoding may have been ineefective

Front 18

Describe decay theory

Back 18

forgetting occurs because memory fades with time

Front 19

describe interference theory and the 2 types

Back 19

interference theory: people forget info because of competition from other material
retroactive interference:new info impairs the retention of previously learned info
proactive interference: previously learned info interferes with retention of new info

Front 20

Explain how forgetting may be due to factors in the retrieval process.

Back 20

remembering can be due to how well a retrieval cue corresponds to the memory
retrieval is also affected by how similar the type of processing required is to the initial processing of info

Front 21

Summarize the biochemistry involved with memory

Back 21

Memory traces may reflect alterations in neurotransmitter release at specific locations, manipulations of hormone levels and protein synthesis can affect memory.

Front 22

Summarize the neural circuitry of memory and long term potentiation.

Back 22

specific memories may depend on localized neural circuits
long-term potentiation is a long lasting increase in neural excitability at synapses along a specific neural pathway

Front 23

Describe 2 types of amnesia

Back 23

retrograde: loss of memories before amnesia
anterograde: loss of memories after amnesia

Front 24

what anatomical structures are involved with memory and what are their functions?

Back 24

hippocampal region aka medial temporal lobe memory system plays a role in consolidation of memories
amygdala: formation of memories for learned fears
prefrontal cortex: working memory

Front 25

describe declarative and non-declarative memory

Back 25

declarative: handles facts
nondeclarative: actions, skills, conditioned responses, emotional responses, contains procedural memory

Front 26

Explain the distinctions between episodic versus semantic memory.

Back 26

episodic: made up of chronological, or temporally dated, recollections of personal experiences
semantic: general knowledge not tied to the time in which it was learned

Front 27

Explain the prospective versus retrospective memory.

Back 27

prospective: remembering to perform actions in the future
retrospective: remembering events from the past or previously learned information

Front 28

What is hindsight bias?

Back 28

the tendency to mold one's interpretation of the past to fit how the events actually turned out

Front 29

Who identified the 7 plus or minus 2 capacity of STM?

Back 29

George Miller

Front 30

What are phonemes?

Back 30

smallest speech units - sounds

Front 31

What are morphemes?

Back 31

smallest unit of meaning - root words, prefixes, and suffixes

Front 32

Explain problems of inducing structure and give examples

Back 32

discover relations among words, numbers, symbols
examples: series completion, analogies

Front 33

explain problems of arrangement and give examples

Back 33

arrange parts of a problem in a way that satisfies some criterion
examples: string problem, anagram

Front 34

explain problems of transformation and give examples

Back 34

carry out a sequence of transformations in order to reach a specific goal
examples: hobbits & orcs, water jar problem

Front 35

What are the 4 stages of Piaget's theory?

Back 35

1. sensorimotor period
2. preoperational period
3. concrete operational period
4. formal operational period

Front 36

What are children expected to learn during Erickson's Trust v. Mistrust stage?

Back 36

Is my world predictable and supportive?

Front 37

What are children expected to learn during Erickson's autonomy v. shame and doubt stage?

Back 37

Can I do things myself or must I rely on others?

Front 38

What are children expected to learn during Erickson's initiative v. guilt stage?

Back 38

Am I good or am I bad?

Front 39

What are children expected to learn during Erickson's industry v. inferiority stage?

Back 39

Am I competent or am I worthless?

Front 40

What are the 3 things that stage theories assume?

Back 40

1. individuals must progress through specified stages in a particular order because each stage builds on the previous stage
2. progress through these stages is strongly related to age
3. development is marked by major discontinuities that usher in dramatic transitions in behavior

Front 41

Explain James Marcia's four identity statuses

Back 41

Identity diffusion- absence of struggle for identity with no concern about it
Identity foreclosure- unquestioning adoption of parental or societal values
identity moratorium- active struggling for sense of identity
identity achievement- successful achievement of a sense of identity

Front 42

When is a child's temperamental individuality established?

Back 42

around 3 months

Front 43

Summarize Lev Vygotsky's theory - include the name of it

Back 43

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory says that children's cognitive development is fueled by social interactions with parents and others, also argued that language is central in cognitive development

Front 44

How do secondary reinforcers work?

Back 44

Secondary reinforcers are reinforcing because of previous experiences

Front 45

What is pseudoforgetting do to?

Back 45

lack of attention

Front 46

What are Thomas and Chess's 3 basic styles of temperament

Back 46

easy children
slow-to-warm-up children
difficult children

Front 47

What are Kagan's 2 styles of children's temperament?

Back 47

inhibited temperament
uninhibited temperament

Front 48

What is inductive reasoning?

Back 48

specific -> general

Front 49

what is deductive reasoning?

Back 49

general -> specific

Front 50

what is means-ends analysis?

Back 50

forward chaining & backward chaining
try to move current state & goal state closer together

Front 51

summarize the law of effect and state who created it

Back 51

Thorndike: Responses that are followed by satisfaction to the animal will be more firmly connected with the situation so that they will be more likely to recur in the future.

Front 52

what is noam chomsky's language theory?

Back 52

humans have an inborn or native propensity to develop language