Psych Exam 2

Front 1

Consciousness

Back 1

a person’s awareness of everything that is going on around him or her at any given moment
Thoughts
Sensations
Feelings

Front 2

Effects of sleep deprivation, including effects for those who work shift work

Back 2

concentration problems and difficulty with problem-solving
Symptoms include trembling hands, inattention, drooping eyelids, general discomfort, irritability
People who work jobs involving shift changes throw off their body clock
Less total sleep and poorer quality sleep
Negative impact on productivity and accident proneness at work
Impacts physical and mental health

Front 3

Adaptive theory of sleep

Back 3

Sleep is a product of evolution
Different species have different sleep patterns to avoid predators

Front 4

Restorative theory of sleep

Back 4

Sleep is necessary to the physical health of the body
Allows for replenishment of body chemicals and cell repair

Front 5

Types of brain waves and what type of consciousness they coincide with (beta, alpha, theta, delta)

Back 5

Beta waves are present in a person who is wide awake and mentally active
Alpha waves indicate a state of relaxation or light sleep
Theta waves indicate early stages of sleepDelta waves make their appearance in stage three (make up 20-50% of the brain wave pattern)

Front 6

Stage four sleep

Back 6

Begins once delta waves make up 50% of the brain wave pattern
Growth hormones are released from the pituitary gland
Body is at its lowest level of functioning
People are hard to awaken and may be confused and disoriented if awakened

Front 7

REM sleep

Back 7

Eyes move rapidly under the eyelids
Typically when dreaming occurs

Front 8

Sleep disorders (insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea)

Back 8

Insomnia
Refers to chronic problems in getting adequate sleep (falling asleep, remaining asleep, getting quality sleep)
15% of adults report severe insomnia; another 15% report mild or occasional insomnia
Causes include anxiety, tension, depression, diet, and health problems
Sleep Apnea
Person stops breathing for 30 seconds or more
Causes sleepiness during day and heart problems
Obesity is a primary cause
Treatment includes nasal sprays and using a continuous positive airway pressure device (CPAP)
Narcolepsy
Person falls immediately into REM sleep during the day without warning

Front 9

Theories of dreaming

Back 9

Dreams as Wish Fulfilment
Freud’s theory
Manifest content is the actual content of the dream
Latent content is true meaning of the content of the dream
Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis
Dreams are created by the higher centers of the cortex to explain the activation by the brain stem of cortical cells during REM sleep periods
Activation-Information-Mode Model (AIM)
Revised version of the activation-synthesis explanation of dreams in which information that is accessed during waking hours can have an influence on the synthesis of dreams

Front 10

Theories of hypnosis

Back 10

The Hidden Observer (Hilgard)
Two streams of consciousness: 1) communication with hypnotist and external world, and 2) hidden observer
Dissociation is a splitting off of mental processes into two separate, simultaneous streams of awareness
Highway hypnosis
Social-Cognitive Explanation
No physiological difference between a person in a hypnotic state and when awake (EEG patterns are the same)
Some researchers believe that suggestible people act the way they believe a hypnotized person would or should

Front 11

Psychological versus physical dependence

Back 11

Physical Dependence
Physical dependence exists when a person must continue to take a drug to avoid withdrawal illness because the body has become unable to function normally without the drug
Tolerance – larger amounts of the drug are needed to achieve the same effects
Withdrawal – physical symptoms due to the body’s trying to adjust to the absence of the drug
Psychological Dependence
Feeling that the drug is needed to continue a feeling of emotional or psychological well-being

Front 12

Effects of stimulants and depressants

Back 12

Stimulants-uppers
Cause the nervous system and many of the connected organs to increase their activity
Amphetamines
Increase activity in the sympathetic nervous system
Synthetic
Diet pills, “stay awake” pills, Adderal
Cocaine
Natural
Produces feelings of euphoria, energy, power, and pleasure; deadens pain and decreases appetite
Depressants- downers
Major Tranquilizers/Barbiturates
Sedative effect
Highly addictive
Especially dangerous when combined with alcohol
Minor Tranquilizers/Benzodiazepines
Used to lower anxiety and reduce stress
Less addictive than barbiturates, and commonly used to treat sleep problems, nervousness, and anxiety

Front 13

Withdrawal

Back 13

physical symptoms due to the body’s trying to adjust to the absence of the drug

Front 14

Learning

Back 14

any relatively permanent change in behavior that can be attributed to experience

Front 15

Classical conditioning and related terms (conditioned stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, conditioned response, unconditioned response, etc.)

Back 15

Neutral stimulus (NS): does not evoke a response (bell at first)
Conditioned stimulus (CS): evokes a response because it has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (bell)
Unconditioned stimulus (CS): naturally capable of eliciting a response (meat powder)
Unconditioned response (UR): innate or “built in”; reflex (salivation)
Conditioned response (CR): learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus (salivation)

Front 16

Acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery

Back 16

Acquisition is the period during which a response in reinforced
Extinction is the weakening of a conditioned response through removal or reinforcement
Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction
Stimulus generalization involves responding to stimuli that are similar to, but not identical to, a conditioned stimulus (Little Albert)
Stimulus discrimination is the ability to respond differently to similar stimuli

Front 17

Positive and negative reinforcement

Back 17

Positive reinforcement occurs when a pleasant event follows a response (e.g. Your mom gives you $10 for each A you earn)


Negative reinforcement occurs when making a response removes an unpleasant event (e.g. If you earn an A on all of your exams, you are exempt from the final exam)

Front 18

Primary and secondary reinforcers

Back 18

Primary reinforcers are natural, non-learned, and rooted in biology (food, water, sex)


Secondary reinforcers are learned and usually satisfy psychological needs (money, attention, affection)
A token reinforcer is tangible (stars, money)
Social reinforcers include attention, approval, or affection

Front 19

Schedules of reinforcement

Back 19

Schedule of reinforcement: rule or plan for determining which responses will be reinforced
Continuous reinforcement is associated with a schedule in which every correct response is followed by a reinforcer
Partial reinforcement is associated with a pattern in which only a portion of all responses are reinforced
Partial reinforcement effect states that responses acquired with partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction

Front 20

Punishment

Back 20

Punishment lowers the probability that a response will occur again
Punishment that is most effective is given only after an undesired response occurs
A punisher is any consequence that reduces the frequency of a target behavior
Time, consistency, and intensity are factors that determine the effectiveness of a punishment
Punishment of the wrong behavior should be paired with reinforcement for the right behavior
In escape learning, we learn to make a response to end an unpleasant stimulus
In avoidance learning, we make a response to postpone or prevent discomfort

Front 21

Learned helplessness

Back 21

"i know some people who seem to act just like those dogs-they live in a horrible situation but wont leave. is this the same thing?" Learned helplessness is the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past, to explain depression.

Front 22

Bandura’s Bobo doll study

Back 22

Bandura’s Bo-Bo Doll Study
Group 1: Viewed adult sitting on, punching, hitting doll
Group 2: Viewed a movie of these actions
Group 3: Viewed a cartoon movie of these actions
When children were later placed in a frustrating situation and allowed to play with the Bo-Bo doll, they exhibited aggressive acts

Front 23

Encoding, storage, retrieval

Back 23

Encoding involves forming a memory code, and usually requires attention
Storage involves maintaining encoded information in memory over time
Retrieval involves recovering information from memory stores

Front 24

Levels of processing theory

Back 24

proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes
Researchers directed subjects’ attention to various stimulus words and asked them questions about various characteristics of the words, which were designed to engage them in different levels of processing
When participants received an unexpected test of their memory for the words, their recall was low after structural encoding, moderate after phonemic encoding, and highest after semantic encoding

Front 25

Stages of memory

Back 25

sensory memory- First stage of memory
Iconic memory – visual sensory memory
The sensory memory preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second
The sensation of a visual pattern, sound or touch remains for a brief moment after the sensory stimulation ends
The brief preservation of sensations in sensory memory gives you additional time to try to recognize stimuli
Echoic memory – the brief memory of something a person has just heard
Limited in what can be heard at any one moment
Allows person to process what has been said
short term memory- unrehearsed information lost in about 15-30 seconds.
long-term memory- some information is retained indefinitely; some is lost with the passage of time.

Front 26

Maintenance rehearsal

Back 26

the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about information, helps commit information to short-term memory
Without rehearsal, information in STM is lost in <20 seconds
STM holds approximately seven items at a time
Chunking can be used to group familiar stimuli and store them as a single unit to improve STM

Front 27

Procedural and declarative memory

Back 27

Procedural (Nondeclarative) LTM
Memories for skills
Include emotional associations, habits, and simple conditioned reflexes
Implicit
Declarative LTM
Memories of what someone knows
Facts and information
Episodic memory

Front 28

Theories of relationship between STM and LTM

Back 28

Different views on how STM and LTM are related:
STM and LTM are independent systems
STM is a tiny and constantly changing portion of LTM that is in a heightened state of activation

Front 29

Schema

Back 29

Schemas are organized clusters of knowledge about a particular object or sequence of events (e.g. Kitchen)

Front 30

Recall and recognition

Back 30

Recall – information that is being retrieved is “pulled” from memory with few cues
Retrieval failure (“It’s on the tip of my tongue!”)
Serial position effect
Primacy and recency effects

Recognition – matching cues to what is already in memory
False positives can occur

Front 31

Hippocampus’ role in memory

Back 31

Memory loss was originally attributed to removal of hippocampus
Researchers believe the hippocampal region is involved in consolidation of memories (process involving the gradual conversion of information into memory codes stored in LTM)

Front 32

Encoding specificity principle

Back 32

the tendency for memory of any kind of information to be improved if the physical surroundings available when the memory is first formed are also when the memory is being retrieved. for example, encoding specificity would predict that the best place to take one's chemistry test is in the same room in which you learned the material. also, its very common to walk into the room and know that there was something you wanted, but in order to remember it, you have to go back to the room you started in to use your surroundings as a cue for remembering.

Front 33

Decay theory

Back 33

proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time
Forgetting depends not on the amount of time that has passed since learning, but on the amount, complexity, and type of information that subjects have had to assimilate during the retention interval

Front 34

Alzheimer’s disease

Back 34

the most common type of dementia found in adults and the elderly. it has also become the thrid leading cause of death in late adulthood.

symptoms include changes in memory, which may be rather mild at first but which become more severe over time, causing the person to become more and more forgetful about everyday tasks, such as remembering to turn off the stove. as it progresses, the ability to do simple calculations is lost, along with simple tasks such as bathing or getting dressed. it is a costly disease to care for and people with alzheimers slowly become strangers to family members.

Front 35

Development

Back 35

Development is the sequence of age-related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death
Development is a lifelong process characterized by continuity and transition
Research Methods
Longitudinal
Cross-sectional
Cross-sequential

Front 36

Stages of pregnancy (germinal, embryonic, fetal)

Back 36

germinal stage is the first phase of prenatal development, encompassing the first two weeks after conception
Rapid cell division  zygote becomes a microscopic mass of multiplying cells
Cell mass implants itself in the uterine wall
The placenta, which is a structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to pass into the fetus from the mother’s bloodstream and bodily wastes to pass out to the mother, forms
The embryonic stage is the second state of prenatal development, lasting from two weeks until the end of the second month
Vital organs and bodily systems begin to form
Embryo begins to look human, although it is only one inch long
Most vulnerable period
fetal stage is the third stage of prenatal development, lasting from two months through birth

Front 37

Effects of fetal alcohol syndrome

Back 37

a collection of congenital problems associated with excessive alcohol use during pregnancy
Microcephaly (small head)
Heart defects
Retarded mental and motor development

Front 38

Senses at birth (hearing, touch, smell, etc.)

Back 38

Touch – most well developed
Smell – highly developed
Taste – nearly fully developed
Hearing – functional before birth, but takes a little while to reach full potential
Vision – least functional after birth
Fixed distance for clear vision 7-10 inches
Prefer complex patterns and 3-D figures
Human face is most-preferred visual stimulus

Front 39

Egocentricity

Back 39

egocentrism- the inability to see the world through anyone else's eyes except one's own. part of the preoperational stage(ages 2-7 developing language and concepts).

Front 40

Underextension/overextension

Back 40

when child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to
when child incorrectly uses word to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant to

Front 41

Temperament

Back 41

which is relatively established at birth, refers to characteristic mood, activity, level, and emotional reactivity
Three styles of temperament (Thomas & Chess, 1977):
40% were easy children – happy, regular in eating and sleeping, adaptable, not easily upset
15% were slow-to-warm-up children – less cheery, less regular in sleep and eating, slower in adapting to change, wary or new experiences, moderate emotional reactivity
10% were difficult children – glum, erratic in sleep and eating, resistant to change, irritable
Remaining 35% were a combination

Front 42

Attachment

Back 42

Emotional attachment: close bond infants form with parents or caregivers
Mary Ainsworth observed infants’ behavior when separated and reunited with their mothers (The Strange Situation)
Secure attachment: stable and positive emotional bond
Avoidant attachment: anxious emotional bond; child avoids reunion with parent
Ambivalent attachment: anxious emotional bond; child demonstrates both a desire to be with parent and resistance to being reunited
Disorganized-disoriented: approach parent but without making eye contact; appear dazed and depressed
Day care and attachment – what do you think?

Front 43

Scaffolding

Back 43

Vygotsky believed that children develop cognitively when someone else helps them by asking leading questions and providing examples of concepts. in scaffolding, the mosre highly skilled person gives the learner more help at the beginning of the learning process and then begins to withdrawal help as the learner's skills improve.

Front 44

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

Back 44

Focuses on moral reasoning rather than overt behavior
Preconventional level (younger children): think in terms of external authority; acts are wrong because they are punished or right because they lead to positive consequences
Conventional level (older children): recognize that rules are necessary for maintaining social order
Postconventional level (adolescents): work out a personal code of ethics; acceptance of rules less rigid

Front 45

Characteristics of adolescence

Back 45

Age 13 to early twenties
Person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult
Not totally determined by chronological age

Front 46

Imaginary audience

Back 46

extreme self consciousness in adolescents. they become convinced that everyone is looking at them and that they are always the center of everyone else's world, just as they are the center of their own.

Front 47

Erikson’s psychosocial dilemmas (intimacy vs. isolation, etc.)

Back 47

in young adulthood, erikson saw the primary task to be finding a mate. true intimacy is an emotional and psychological closeness that is based on the ability to trust, share, and care, while still maintaining one's sense of self. see pg281

Front 48

Disengagement theory

Back 48

it is normal for older people to withdraw form society and from roles they held earlier

Front 49

Kubler-Ross’ reactions to impending death

Back 49

Denial and isolation
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance

Front 50

when our mental activity undegoes a change in quality or pattern, this is called an:
a. waking consciousness
b. altered state of consciousness
c. transient state of consciousness
d. hallucination

Back 50

???

Front 51

the sleep-wake cycle is a(n)____ rhythm, normally occurring every 24 hours.
a. annual
b. monthly
c. circadian
d. nocturnal

Back 51

???

Front 52

The suprachiasmatic nucleus instructs the ____ gland to release___
a. pineal; melatonin
b. pineal;serotonin
c. pituitary; melatonin
d. pituitary; serotonin

Back 52

???

Front 53

Which of the following does NOT have a role in determining when we sleep?
a. light and dark information
b. body temperature
c. digestin
d. serotonin

Back 53

???

Front 54

Which theory of why we sleep explains why we sleep when we do?
a. restorative theory
b. adaptive theory
c. reactive theory
d. REM theory

Back 54

???

Front 55

all narcotics are derived from
a. cannibus
b. opium
c. mescaline
d. morphine

Back 55

???

Front 56

which of the following is NOT an example of a circadian rhythm?
a. rhythm cycle
b. sleep-wake cycle
c. blood pressure changes
d. body temperature changes

Back 56

???

Front 57

the symptoms of sleep deprivation include all but which of the following?
a. trembling hands
b. inability to concentrate
c. feeling of general discomfort
d. hypnic jerk

Back 57

???

Front 58

in which stage do night terrors occur?
a. stage one
b. stage two
c. stage three
d. stage four

Back 58

???

Front 59

Most of our time awake is spent in a state called ___, in which our thoughts feelings, and sensations are clear and organized and we feel alert.

Back 59

A. altered state of consciousness
B. waking consciousness
C. un-con
d. working con

Front 60

In Watson's experiment with " little albert" the unconditioned stimulus was

Back 60

A: the white rat
B. the loud noise
c. the fear of the rat
d. the fear of the noise

Front 61

____ Occurs when a responce is followed by experiencing something pleasureable

A: postive reinforcement
B. negative
c> punishment
D> generalization

Back 61

?

Front 62

which of the following is not a problem with punishment

A> the affect of punishment is often temporary
B> severe punishment creates fear and anxiety.
c> mild punishment can be paired with reinforcement of the correct behavior
D> agressive punishment can model agressive behavior for the child

Back 62

???

Front 63

which type of memory allows us to have meaningful conversations

A. iconic
b> ecoic
c> short term
D> long term

Back 63

???

Front 64

which type of LTM is seldom, if ever, lost by people with alzymers disease

a> procedural
b> symantec
c> episodic
d> both b and C

Back 64

???

Front 65

the physical trace of memory in the brain is called the

A> memogram
B. engram
c> sonigram
D> pakigram

Back 65

???

Front 66

memory can be best described as

A> a series of storage bins or boxes
B> a process of storage
C> a active system that encodes stores and retrieves infmormation
D> a series of passive data files

Back 66

???

Front 67

in a blank design, several different of age groups are studied at one time

A> longitudinal
B> cross sectional
C. cross sequential
D> cross longitudinal

Back 67

???

Front 68

mental retardation and blindness are possible outcomes of the effects of ____ on the baby

A> alcohol
B> caffine
C> cocaine
D> mercury

Back 68

???

Front 69

which sense is least function at birth

A> touch
B> taste
C> smell
D> vision

Back 69

???

Front 70

by the age of 5, the brain is at _ percent of its adult weight

a> 25
b> 50
C> 90
D>100

Back 70

???