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154 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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psychology |
-scientific study of the mind, brain & behavior -psych. spans many levels of analysis (biological to social influences) |
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five factors of psych. |
1. human behavior is difficult to predict 2. psychological influences are rarely independent of each other 3.people display individual differences in thinking, emotion & personality 4.people influence one another (reciprocal determination) 5.behavior is shaped by culture |
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native realism |
-belief that we see the world precisely as it actually is in truth (seeing is believing) i.e. earth seems flat but really isn't |
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confirmation bias |
-tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypothesis & neglect/distort contradicting evidence *scientists need to design studies that may disprove their theories |
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belief perseverance |
-tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them |
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pseudoscience |
-a set of claims that seem scientific but aren't -lacks the safeguards against confirmation bias & belief perseverance that characterize science -testable beliefs that are not supported by the evidence |
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ad hoc immunizing hypotheses |
-escape hatches to protect against falsification; usually a loophole/exception for negative findings -lack of self-correction -overreliance on anecdotes -anecdotes are often not representative & can't tell us about cause & effect & are often difficult to verify |
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Our brains are predisposed to make order out of disorder & make sense out of nonsense apophenia/patternicity pareidolia |
-tendency to find connections among unrelated or random phenomena -seeing meaningful images in meaningless visual stimuli |
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pseudoscience can be very dangerous 3 major reasons to be concerned |
1. opportunity cost 2. direct harm 3. inability to think scientifically -although not foolproof, scientific thinking is our best safeguard against human error |
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critical thinking principles |
-ruling out rival hypotheses (have important alternate explanations for the finding been considered) -correlation isn't causation (can we be sure A causes B?) -falsifiability (can the claim be disproven) |
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replicability extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence Occam's razor parsimony |
-can the results be duplicated in other studies -is the evidence as convincing as the claims -does a simpler explanation fit the data -logical simplicity |
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-two great debates have shaped the field of psych. both currently & in the past nature-nurture free will-determination |
-are our behaviors attributable mostly to our genes or our rearing enviro. -to what extent are our behaviors freely selected, rather than caused by factors outside of our control |
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structuralism |
-major figures: Wundt & E. B. Titchener
-aimed to identify the most basic elements of psychological experience (why we feel) |
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Functionalism |
-major figure: William James; influenced by Charles Darwin
-hoped to understand the adaptive purposes of thought and behavior (how we feel) |
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behaviorism |
major figures: Watson & skinner
- focuses on uncovering the general laws of learning by looking outside the organism (black box method) |
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cognitivism |
-major figures: Piaget & Neisser -focuses on the mental processes involved in different aspects of thinking |
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psychoanalysis |
-major figures: Freud & Jung -focused on internal psychological processes of which we're unaware |
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structuralism functionalism behaviorism cognitivism psychoanalysis |
-encouraged systematic data collection & empiricism -influenced evolutionary perspectives in modern psychology -helped to understand how we learn & improved psychology's scientific rigor -highlighted the role of thought & our interpretation of events in behavior -may have actually retarded scientific advance of psych., but theories of mental processing outside of conscious awareness are holding up |
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types of psychologists cognitive experimental personality social clinical counseling school educational health developmental biological (behavioral neuroscience) forensic I/O sports |
-study how we perceive & process info. -cognition, learning -study how our individual traits develop as we mature -study how others impact our thoughts & behaviors -work in mental hospitals w/ people who have severe mental disorders (bi-polar) -minor problems (marital issues & stress) -assess & develop intervention programs for troubled kids -helps teachers deal w/problem kids -psychological factors in health & illness -study why & how people change over time (most work w/ infants & children & elderly) -examine physiological bases of behavior (neurotransmitter levels) work in research settings -assess, diagnose & assist w/ rehabilitation & treatment of prison inmates (others conduct research on eyewitnesses or juries) -personnel psychology that help corporations increase efficiency & real world applications -psychological effect on performance in sports |
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conclusions |
-learning to think scientifically will help you make better decisions not only in this course, but in everyday life -when confronted with claims from popular psychology & popular culture, remember to "insist on evidence" |
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why we need research designs |
-in early 1990s, autsim treatment was developed called "facilitated communication" -facilitator sat next to child w/autism & guided the child's hand over a keyboard, allowing child to type out words -students seemed to make stunning progress in communication, telling parents "I love you" & writing poetry -however, some students began making allegations of sexual abuse against parents -dozens of controlled studies examined the phenomenon & found that the words came solely from the minds of the facilitators -still, some people continue to practice facilitated communication |
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prefrontal lobotomy |
-developer won Nobel Prize -the neural fibers connecting frontal lobes to the thalamus were severed -control studies showed it didn't work |
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heuristics |
-mental shortcuts/ rules of thumb that we use daily -reduce the cognitive energy required to solve problems but we oversimplify reality |
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representativeness heuristic availability heuristic |
-kidnapping -> taking away by force; assumption is taking away "kids" -tend to increase likelyhood of events based on how many examples can be thought of |
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principles of research design |
1.perceive the question 2.form a hypothesis 3.test the hypothesis 4.draw conclusions 5.report your results clearly |
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descriptive studies |
-describe observations about behavior -naturalistic observation, case studies, surveys -generate testable hypotheses (empirical) |
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naturalistic observation |
-record behavior in naturally occurring situations Pros: -realistic picture of behavior -high external validity (generalize to real world) Cons: -observer effect -participant observation -observer bias -blind observers -low internal validity (how well can you draw cause & effect relationships) |
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laboratory observation |
Pro: -control over environment/subjects -allows use of specialized equipment Con: -artificial situation may result in artificial behavior |
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case study |
-study of one individual Pro: -tremendous amt of detail; patterns may be detected, tested Con: -cannot generalize or be replicated Famous case study: Phineas Gage -patient HM -John/Joan case -Genie |
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self report measures & surveys |
-psych.s often need to ask people about themselves or others -questionnaires assess characteristics such as personality or mental illness -surveys ask about a person's opinions or abilities Pro: 1st hand account & easy |
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self report measures |
Pros: -easy to administer -direct (self) assessment of person's state Cons: -accuracy is skewed for certain groups (narcissists) -potential for dishonesty -response sets -positive impression management -malingering (look worse than you are) |
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survey |
-ask people -collects self-reported attitudes/behaviors of people -usually anonymous -use representative sample of population -people tested are distributed in about the same manner as in the entire population -gender, ethnicity, socio-eco status, ect. |
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evaluating results reliability validity |
-to trust results, the measures must... -consistency of results -measuring what your supposed to be testing -test must be reliable to be valid, but a reliable test can still be completely invalid (bad data) |
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CORRELATION |
DOESN"T MEAN CAUSATION |
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statistics |
-what you do w/descriptive data -collection, analysis, interpretation & presentation of research data |
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correlation |
-a measure of the relationship btw 2 variables -knowing the value of one variable allows us to predict the value of the other variable |
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positive correlation negative correlation correlation coefficient |
-variables related in same direction -variables related in opposite direction -ranges from -1.00 to +1.00 && closer to either one, the stronger the relationship btw the variables |
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illusory correlation |
-perception of a statistical association where none exists (crime rates & the full moon ; arthritis&weather) -examining a probability table helps to explain why we are all prone to seeing relationships where none exist -humans tend to overemphasize cell A & ignore the non-events |
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experimental designs |
-CAUSATION REQUIRES MANIPULATION (of variables) -experiments are carefully regulated procedures that allow us to identify cause & effect relationships -includes random assignment & selection to either an experimental or a matched control group -minimizes undue influence of individual diff. 3rd variables [confounds -> interferes causation & muddies results] |
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experimental group control group |
-subjects under study to determine the effect of some factor -subjects that serve as a standard or baseline for comparison w/the experimental group -matched to the experimental group in # & characteristics, but does not receive the experimental treatment |
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the experiment |
-randomly assign a representative sample to watch violent tv (experimental condition) -or to watch a non-violent but otherwise matched program (control condition) -observe interpersonal behavior afterwards -independent variable is what you're manipulating -dependent variable is what you're measuring |
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independent variable dependent variable operational definition |
-variable that is manipulated by the experimenter -variable that represents the measurable response or behavior of the subject in the experiment -definition of a variable that allows it to be precisely measured & replicable |
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Pros Cons |
-allows determination of cause-effect relationships; prediction & control -external validity & placebo effect -single-blind study replaces placebo effect so the participant doesn't know if getting treated or not -experimenter expectancy effect -double blind study so experimenter doesn't know who received which independent variable |
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confounds demand characteristics |
-any difference btw the experimental & control groups aside from the IV makes IV effects uninterpretable -cause & effect --> possible to infer, w/random assignment & manipulation of independent variable -cues that participants pick up allowing them to guess at the researcher's hypotheses |
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Tuskegee study ran from 1932 to 1972 |
-african american men living in rural Alabama diagnosed w/syphilis -U.S. public health service never informed or treated the men; merely studied the course of the disease -28 men died of syphilis; 100 of related complications; 40 wives were infected & 19 children were born with it |
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ethical guidelines for human research institutional review board (IRB) |
-research has to go through a careful process of review to ensure that it is conducted ethically -informed consent, justification of deception & debriefing of subjects afterwards |
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ethical issues in animal research |
-still requires permission to minimize animal harm -only 7-8% of psych. uses animals -vast majority are rodents & birds -goal is to generate idea about the brain & behavior w/out harming people -use animals beyond ethical realm towards humans |
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descriptive statistics central tendency mean median mode |
-describe the data -where the group tends to cluster -average of all scores; used the most -middle score in the data set to determine extreme outliers -most frequent score in the data set (for data not of #s) |
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variability range standard deviation |
-sense of how loosely/tightly bunched scores are -difference btw the highest & lowest scores -measure that takes into account how far each data point is from the mean |
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inferential statistics |
-gives a cause; allows us to determine whether we can generalize findings from our sample to the population -statistical significance (results found w/ 5% probability [p=.05] wear found to chance) -practical significance for real world importance |
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how people lie w/statistics |
-people can misuse statistics to persuade & mislead others -report unrepresentative measures (mean instead of the median) for skewed data -truncate the axes of graphs -neglect base rate probabilities (ignoring the obvious simple causes) |
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evaluating psych. research |
-process of peer review helps to identify & correct flaws in research & research conclusions -remember to keep a look out for confounds, placebos, experimenter expectancy, correlation vs. causation, & others |
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evaluation of psych in the media |
-most researchers are not scientists, so consider the source -beware of sharpening, leveling & pseudosymmetry -exaggerate claim, removes details & make up false controversy |
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Neuron Structure dendrites cell body axon myelin sheath nerve impulse terminal branches of axon |
-receive messages from other cells -the cell's life support center -passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles or glands -covers the axon of some neurons & helps speed neural impulses -electrical signal traveling down the axon -form junctions w/ other cells |
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number axon processes function neurotransmitter (NT) used by neuron effects of NT |
-unipolar, bipolar & multipolar (most common) -sensory neurons carry messages toward the brain; motor neurons carry messages to muscles & interneurons connect cells -chemical that binds in synapse -excitatory vs. inhibitory |
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neuroglia |
-provide physical support, control nutrient flow & are involved in phagocytosis -astrocytes (most common) , microglia, oligodendroglia (create myelin sheath in CNS) & schwann cells (create myelin sheath in PNS) |
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electrochemical conduction |
-nerve cells are specialized for communication (neurons conduct ELECTROCHEMICAL signals)
-dendrites receive chemical message from adjoining cell
-ligands activate receptors on the dendrite membrane
-receptor activation opens ion channels, which can alter membrane potential
-action potential can result & is propagated down the membrane
-action potential causes release of transmitter from axon terminals |
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ion channels |
-channels allow for entry/efflux of ions -ligand-gated, voltage-gated & stretch-gated -impact of ion channel will depend on charge/direction of flow |
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measuring resting membrane potential of a neuron |
-giant axon from a squid is placed in seawater in a recording chamber -glass microelectrode is inserted into axon -voltage measures -70 mV inside w/respect to outside |
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action potentials are generated in the axon hillock when the RMP rises above threshold |
-initial segment has a high density of voltage-gated sodium channels *all or nothing action potential |
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the action potential (AP) |
-AP is a stereotyped change in membrane potential -if RMP moves past threshold, membrane potential quickly moves to +40 mV & returns to rest (refractory period) -ionic basis of the AP -Na+ in causes upswing of spike (diffusion, electrostatic pressure) called depolarization -K+ out: downswing of spike (called hyperpolarization) |
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saltatory conduction of myelin sheath |
multiple sclerosis destroys myelin sheath -decreases neuratory transmission |
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synapses |
-the physical gap btw pre- & post-synaptic membrane -presynaptic membrane is typically an axon -axon terminal contains mitochondria & synaptic vesicles (power house & house neurotransmitters) -postsynaptic membrane can be....a dendrite, cell body or another axon -postsynaptic thickening lies under the axon terminal & contains receptors for transmitters |
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termination of postsynaptic potentials |
-the binding of NT to a postsynaptic receptor results in a PSP -termination of PSPs is accomplished via.... -reuptake --> the NT molecule is transported back into the cytoplasm of the presynaptic membrane (NT molecule can be reused & vesicular transporters can move NT into vesicles) -enzymatic deactivation --> an enzyme destroys the NT molecule -diffusion away from the receptor sites |
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synaptic transmission agonist antagonist |
-neurotransmitter substances are.... synthesized, stored, released & terminated & susceptible to drug manipulation -bind to receptor to activate receptor -bind to receptor to prevent activation |
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acetylcholine |
-acetylcholinergic neurons distributed across brain -acetylcholine release is generally facilitatory -drugs act at multiple levels to facilitate or inhibit acetlycholine activity -botulinum toxin (plastic surgery) is fatal -black widow spider venom -atropine -curare (paralyzing agent) -acetylcholine controls muscles & if blocked, causes paralysis |
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monoamines dopamine norepinephrine seretonin aminoacids |
-is used by several neural systems -cocaine blocks reuptake -amphetamine & methylphenidate blocks uptake & forces more NT out into cleft -(adrenaline) found in neurons in the autonomic NS & cells project throughout brain; causes arousal -(5-HT) cells are mostly located in the gut (98%) w/ 2% in brain -cell bodies are located in brainstem raphe nuclei & project to cortex -LSD (hallucination) & MDMA(ectasy) forces seretonin out into cleft -most common NTs in the CNS; as many as 8 may act as NTs but 3 are most important: glutamate, GABA & glycine |
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glutamate GABA anadamide endorphins |
-principal excitatory NT in the CNS (activates neurons) -primary inhibitory NT in CNS (suppresses NS) & distributed throughout the brain -alchohol [never recorded info when it blocks CNS) -marijuana -THC memory, makes you sleepy -endogenous opiods -> happy & reduces pain |
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synaptic actions of drugs Nicotine/ muscarine/ ACh Cocaine / dopamine |
-drug stimulates postsynaptic receptors AGO -drug blocks reuptake AGO -dopamine also....serves as precursor for AGO & stimulates autoreceptors; inhibits synthesis/release of NT ANT |
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neural plasticity |
-growth (harborization) of cell bodies & axon -synaptogenesis -> increases synapses [learning] -pruning -> unused synapses die -myelination -> faster transmission due to growth of sheath |
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planes of section |
-sagittal {---|---} in half w/ left & right -coronal (transverse) { | } in half w/front & back -horizontal {-----} in half w/top & bottom |
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central nervous system peripheral nervous system |
-comprised of the brain & spinal cord -comprised of the cranial/spinal nerves & peripheral ganglia -PNS nerves project to target organs & to muscles (efferent) -nerves also carry sensory info to the brain (afferent) |
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cerebrospinal fluid |
-brain floats in a pool of this fluid to reduce its net weight from 1400 g to 80 g -produced by the choroid plexus of each ventricle -brain ventricles are an access pt. for drug studies -brain ventricles can expand when brain cells die (alcoholism or schizophrenia) |
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cerebral cortex |
-forms the outer surface of the cerebral hemisphere -convoluted by grooves [sulci -> sm grooves & fissures -> lg. grooves] -bulges in cortex are gyrti -cortex is primarily composed of cells, giving it a gray appearance (formed by 6 layers of cells) -cortex can be divided into frontal lobe, parietal, occipital & temporal lobes -white matter is myelinated, grey matter isn't |
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Frontal lobe parietal lobe occipital lobe temporal lobe |
-executive control center; motor movement, impulse control, plans out movement *brokers area of speech: production of speech -sensory cortex; touch, pain; track locations; communication to grab something -vision -auditory ;recognizes faces; biological info storage *wheiner's area: speech comprehension |
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the more precise info that is required.... |
the more somasensory detail attention towards it |
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basal ganglia |
-collection of subcortical nuclei that lie just under the anterior aspect of the later ventricles -consist of the caudate nucleus, putamen & globus pallidus -input basal ganglia is from primary motor cortex & substantia nigra -output of basal ganglia is to.... -primary motor cortex, supplemental motor area & premotor cortex -brainstem motor nuclei |
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degenerative disorders |
-produce loss of brain neurons -Parkinson's disease: loss of dopamine neurons -Huntington's Chorea: loss of GABA/ACh -Alzheminer's disease: loss of Ach neurons |
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limbic system hippocampus amygdala mammillary bodies |
-involved in learning & memory -involved in emotion -smell memory; fornix is a fiber bundle that interconnects the hippocampus w/ mammillary bodies |
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limbic system functions |
-hippocampal damage: anterograde memory impairment (no new memories) -amygdala: key for emotion analyses -mammillary bodies: damaged in Korsakoff's disease [gaps in memory -->fills in blanks w/out knowing --> wont know they're lying] |
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diencephalon thalamus hypothalamus |
-contains nuclei that receive sensory info & transmit it to cortex; all senses except for smell goes through here [sensory relay center] -contains nuclei involved in integration of species (typical behaviors, control of the autonomic NS & pituitary) |
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brain stem reticular activating system |
-midbrain contributes to movement, tracking of visual stimuli & reflexes triggered by sound -connects the forebrain & cerebral cortex & plays key role in arousal (keeping attention) [helps filter out background noise to focus] |
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hindbrain cerebellum pons medulla |
-plays predominant role in our sense of balance & enables us to coordinate movement & learn motor skills -connects cortex to cerebellum & triggers dreams (tells us why we dream) -regulates breathing, heartbeat & other vital functions |
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spinal cord sensory nerves motor nerves interneurons |
-thick bundle of nerves that convey signals btw the brain & body -carry info to the brain -carry info from brain to rest of the body -allow reflexes to happen |
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PNS somatic nervous system autonomic nervous system |
-conveys info btw the CNS & the body, controlling & coordinating voluntary movement -controls the involuntary actions of internal organs & glands -sympathetic --> fight or flight -parasympathetic --> rest & digest (sweating is autonomic) |
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endocrine system pituitary gland adrenal gland sexual reproduction glands |
*fun fact: grellin is a peptide released when hungry & increases reward properties of drugs -controls the other glands in body & releases hormones that influence growth, blood pressure & other functions (oxytocin -->sexual/breast feeding/ male ejaculation) -release adrenaline & cortisol during states of emotional arousal |
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phrenology EEG neuroimaging through MRI & fMRI TMS |
-based on size/shape/dents in brain; it determines your skills ----BS---- -the electro-nodes attached to scalp to measure brain activity -MRI: maps structure of brain & fMRI: shows function & activity of the brain -uses magnets to deactivate parts of brain without harming the brain; external |
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clinical studies
deep lesioning electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB)
lesion deficit |
-electrical current used to destroy brain cells
-milder electrical current used to simulate neural activity in brain; plant electrode in reward area -----> get a dopamine rush
-case studies of brain damage can help identify regions responsible for certain functions (phineas gage w/ prefrontal cortex) |
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Left Hemisphere |
fine-tuned language skills -speech comprehension -speech production -syntax -reading -writing actions -making final expressions -motion detection |
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right hemisphere |
course language skills -simple speech -simple writing -tone of voice visuospatial skills -perceptual grouping -face perception *lateralization btw right & left hemispheres |
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split brain research |
-study patients w/ severed corpus callosum (connects both hemispheres of brain) -messages sent to only one side of the brain -demonstrates the action of both contralaterality & right & left hemisphere specializations -only done if drugs can't prevent seizures (epilepsy) -lose conscious control of certain behaviors |
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behavioral genetics heritability |
-studies the relative impact of nature & nurture on psychological traits -family studies, twin studies & adoption studies -determine how much both genes & environ. contribute to a particular trait |
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sensory receptors |
-specialized neurons in the sense organs that send messages to the brain via PNS sensory pathways (eyes, ears, nose, taste buds, skin) |
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sensation perception |
-stimulation of our sense organs by features of the outer world -activation of sensory receptors by external physical stimulus energy -how brain organizes & interprets sensory info in a meaningful way |
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bottom-up processing |
-sensations transduce a physical signal directly into a neural impulse the brain can later interpret for meaning -transduction --> conversion of environ. energy into neural impulses the brain can understand |
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human brain is predisposed to find meaningful patterns |
our sensory & perceptual processes work together to help us make sense of what we are experiencing |
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sensory adaptation |
-process by which our sensitivity diminishes when an object constantly stimulates our senses -physical process physically fatigues the sensory receptors -allows us to selectively attend to informative changes |
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adaptation |
-staring causes constant visual stimuli -visual saccades: rapid, ballistic movements of the eyes that abruptly change the point of fixation -perception is not always truthful, bit they are useful |
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specific nerve energies |
-cross model processing -synestheia -McGurk effect |
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Absolute threshold |
-vision ---candle flame at 30 miles -hearing ---ticking watch at 20 ft -taste ---1 tsp sugar in 1 gal water -smell---1 drop perfume through 3 rooms -touch---bee wing falling on face @ 1 cm |
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difference threshold weber's law |
-just noticeable difference (JND) -our perception of a JND change in a stimulus is a constant ratio of the original stimulus (whisper vs. shout) |
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change blindness |
-phenomenon of selective attention -we can only pay attention to a fraction of sensory input in any given moment -recall that unattended stimuli never enter awareness -so what we attend are the only parts we can remember |
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how do we experience the physical characteristics of stimuli |
lightwaves 300nm to 700nm |
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the human eye can see 7000000 colors color can affect your productivity & your mood |
yellow is associated w/irritability green is associated w/relaxation red stimulates appetite, blue suppresses it pink is calming & has a tranquil effect |
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cornea lens |
-clear membrane that covers the surface of the eye & has 80% focus power -accommodation (change shape of lens by flexing eye muscles) & has 20% focus power |
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iris pupil |
-colored muscle around the pupil; changes the size of the pupil; melanin changes eye color -hole that admits light into the eye |
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retina (3 layers) photoreceptor layer rods cones |
-light sensitive surface on the back of the eye where light is focused -transduces light stimuli into neural impulses -visual sensory receptors -account for nearly 3/4 of all human sensory receptors
-low light hours (dim light); shape & form blue wavelengths -detail & color -other 2 retinal layers further refine the visual neural impulses (ganglion cells & bipolar cells) |
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Cones Rods |
-6 million; located in center; sensitivity in dim light is low; color sensitive -120 million; periphery of retina; high sensitivity in dim light; only blue sensitivity to color |
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fovea |
area of maximum acuity, cone concentration, center of focus on the retina (very back of eye); cones |
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optic nerve |
-bundle of retinal cell axons that carries the neural impulses from the retina to the visual cortex in the brain (where perception/interpretation happens) |
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pathway to the visual cortex |
cornea -> pupil -> lens -> retina -> optic nerve -> thalamus -> visual cortex in the occipital lobes of the brain |
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the blind spot |
-hole in the retina where the axons of the retinal cells exit the eye to form the optic nerve -insensitive to light (no rods or cones [hole]) -a small object that falls on the blind spot is "invisible" -brain fills it in w/surroundings |
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trichromatic theory |
-says that the patterns of activity in 3 different cone types creates normal color perception (red, green & blue) -at the sensation level |
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opponent process effect |
-proposes 4 primary colors ( 6 w/black & white) are arranged in pairs -red- green -blue-yellow -when one color is activated, the other is inhibited (in that single pt. on the retinotopic map) |
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opponent processing happens in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus, NOT in the retina |
-happens in the brain -concave (inward, opposite from the convex eye ) ( sun vs. (-) sun |
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depth inversion effect |
our visual system assumes objects are convex, especially for more familiar things, like faces |
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if a tree falls in the forest & no one is there to hear it, would there be a sound? |
YES |
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wavelength |
-measured in hertz (Hz) [waves per second] -Pitch (high or low sound) -we hear btw 4 to 800 Hz |
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amplitude |
-measured in decibels (units of loudness) -Volume (soft to loud) - 0 is threshold of hearing -20 is whisper -40 is typical room -60 is normal conversation -busy street is 80 Prolonged exposure above 85 decibels produces hearing loss -100 is subway train at 20 ft -110 is jet plane at 500 ft -120 is loud thunder -140 is rock band (amplified) at close range |
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outer & middle ear pinna auditory canal tympanic membrane ossicles |
-outer ear -tunnel to eardrum -eardrum -mallus, anvil & stirrup |
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inner ear cochlea organ of corti basilar hair cells auditory canal |
-snail shaped structure filled w/fluid -in basilar membrane & contains receptor cells -hair cells; stretched-gated ion channels -receives messages from organ of Corti & carries them to the brain |
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on the basilar membrane in the cochlea |
-soundwaves set basilar membrane in motion -hair cells fire when the wave causes them to bend |
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traveling waves |
-basilar membrane displacement as a function of frequen y -causes vibrations -base has high frequency -apex has low frequency base 3000 Hz->1600 Hz->300 Hz->50 Hz apex |
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taste (gustation) |
tongue -taste buds (receptors) -papilae (house the taste buds) five primary tastes -sours ---- acids -salty -----NaCl -Bitter ---- Alkaloids (poisons) -Umami --- Glutamate (savory; MSG) -Sweet ---- sugars -others? (fat) |
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smell (olfaction) *olfactory pathway |
olfactory receptors -> neural impulse -> olfactory nerve -> olfactory bulbs (brain) bulbs link directly to limbic system |
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"flavor" includes both taste & smell |
-food selection quality -reduces food poisoning -recruits odor memory (skittles experiment) -perceptual differences lay within "flavor" |
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"body senses" (3) |
-skin sense -kinesthetic sense -vestibular sense |
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Skin Sense |
-touch (mechanoreceptors) -pain -temperature -pressure (receptors in the skin) -sent to the parietal lobe in the somasensory cortex |
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pain receptors (nociceptors) |
-free nerve endings networked in the skin -respond to intense pressure, heat, acids -send neural impulses through sensory pathways to CNS -brain creates "pain" perception |
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Gate-control theory |
addresses both sensory & cognitive factors -pain involves an emotional, top-down component -spinal cord contains pain "gates" -"gate" opens when small fibers are activated -nocicpetor signals (tissue damage) -cognitive signals from unpleasant emotions -rubbing hand over hurt area causes stimuli to inhibit pain |
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how do we stop pain? |
-"gate" closes when large fibers are stimulated -sensory signals other than nocicpetors -cognitive signals from pleasurable emotions -Chemicals -endorphins & their antagonists "kill" pain by blocking the pain signals from entering the brain |
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Kinesthetic sense |
your "activity" sense -tells you the location of your individual body parts in relation to the ground & each other
-mostly located in joint tissues -proprioceptors (tells you sense of body position) |
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Vestibular Sense |
"whole body" sensations of motion, balance & position -arise from fluid motion in inner ear -vestibular canals sensory conflict theory -when visual info conflicts w/ vestibular info, dizziness, nausea, ect. may happen |
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Top-Down Processing |
-the interpretation of sensations to organize individual features into a personally meaningful whole -the brain constructs our perceptions using: -our experience, expectations & beliefs -the context in which something is presented |
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perceptual constancy |
the tendency to perceive objects as unchanging even when they actually change at the sensation level (door opening) |
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color constancy |
-what happens to "color" under different types of illumination? -in sunlight all wavelengths are approximately equal in intensity -in fluorescent light, blue wavelengths are more intense -so when the light source is sun vs. fluorescent light, the sensation of the object's color changes, but not the perception of its actual color -perceiving familiar objects as having a consistent color, even when a changing light source changes the wavelengths that are refleted |
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maximum retinal sensitivity shifts to blue at dusk b/c? |
rods are activated & its only sensitive to blue |
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brightness constancy |
-the apparent brightness of an object stays the same even when the luminance (intensity of reflected light) changes |
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Size constancy |
the tendency to interpret a familiar object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance from the eyes (retinal size) -perceptual size changes images; if perceptual size stays the same, even id the retinal size changes, the object will still be perceived to not have changed sizes |
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perceptual size = retinal size x distance |
brain magnifies things it thinks are far away |
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shape constancy |
the tendency to perceive the shape of a familiar object as being constant, even when its retinal shape changes |
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perception to depth |
images on the retina are 2-D so how do we perceive 3-D (depth)? CUE approach |
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monocular cues (pictorial depth cues) |
-cues for perceiving depth based on one eye only |
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linear perspective |
the perception that parallel lines converge as they recede into the distance |
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ponzo illusion |
capitalizes on the brain's use of distance cues to distort size perception |
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relative size |
looking at two objects we expect to be a similar size......the one that looks smaller will be judged to be farther away |
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interposition |
objects closer to us may block part of our view of more distant objects |
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arial perspective |
"relative clarity" -we can see nearby objects more clearly than ones that are far away -more distance= more haziness |
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texture gradient |
the texture or "grain" of an object appears finer as distance increases |
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motion parallax |
perception of objects in motion appear to move faster than far objects closer = faster & farther = slower |
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binocular cues |
cues for perceiving depth based on both eyes 1. retinal disparity -images from the two eyes differ -closer the object, the larger the disparity 2.convergence -neuromuscular cue -your eyes turn inward (converge) to view a close object |
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muller-lyer illusion : culture |
muller-lyer illusion is more common in industrialized societies |
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moon illusion |
comparison w/horizon......objects leads to subjective magnification of the moon |
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perceptual set |
(perceptual expectancy) -the tendency to perceive things a certain way b/c previous experiences influence that perception |
