Psych 477 1

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the majority of written history (up until the 19th century) failed to acknowledge or consider child development

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History of Child Psychopathology

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children were considered “servants of the state” & were expected to behave as adults; those who could not were labeled as disabled or put to death

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Ancient Greece

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permits parents to put a disobedient child to death, & keep disabled children in cages

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Stubborn Child Act of 1654 (Massachusetts)

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coined by a psychiatrist Rush (approx. 1800) who claimed that children lacked the brain development to retain enough memories to develop true insanity, thus disordered behavior in children must be due to this

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Moral Insanity

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: 1st childhood mental illness. Children caught masturbating were considered to either be: sinning against the flesh, damaging their physical health, & sexually overindulgent. It was also believed that masturbating as a child caused adult psychopathology

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Masturbatory Insanity

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As soon as Europe & the US built & encouraged schools, children were able to be compared & educators began to establish base rates & develop empirical evidence of child behavior by age

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Modern Psychopathology

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among the 1st to suggest that children are emotionally sensitive & should be taught about the world & treated w/ kindness & care

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John Locke (late 1600s)

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1st to write about interventions for developmentally delayed children; found a boy named Victor living in the woods & attempted to rehabilitate into society. 1st to write about interventions for developmentally delayed children; found a boy named Victor living in the woods & attempted to rehabilitate into society

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Jean Marc Itard (~1800)

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adopted the organic disease model which replaced the moral insanity model, & built the 1st child mental institutions

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Dorothea Dix (mid 1800s)

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instrumental in bringing ideas of development to psychoanalytic theory; she found that child sxs were related to developmental tasks (see chart on page 13)

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Anna Freud (1940s)

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child play (as a proxy for fantasy) as well as nonverbal communication

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Melanie Klein

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organizing bxs & sxs into descriptive categories; US = DSM-IV-TR, Europe = ICD-10

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Nosology

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father of behaviorism; famous for conditioning emotional responses (e.g. Little Albert)

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John Watson

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any child w/ difficulties or disability will Individualized education plans (IEP) & will receive education according to their needs

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IDEA Act (US 1990)

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1 in 8 children (under 18) suffer from a psychological disorder. Some barriers to their treatment are the stigma of mental health, lack of family resources, lack of school resources to meet educational needs, poor diagnostic measurement (many diagnostic tools are not sensitive enough)

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Child Psychopathology Today

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Universal defining characteristic of a disorder

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Impairment and Distress

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similar early experiences can lead to various developmental outcomes (e.g. abuse)

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Multifinality

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early experiences can lead to the same developmental outcomes (e.g. substance use)

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Equifinality

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As mental health professionals we have to counteract the societal stigma placed on psychopathology that becomes a risk factor as well as a barrier to treatment. In many cases, disordered child behavior is the result of a child attempting to adapt to abnormal or unusual circumstances

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Disorders describe bxs not children

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a variable that precedes a negative outcome of interest & increases the chance that outcome will occur. Most common risk: 1) Low SES, 2) Abuse & neglect, 3) inadequate child care, 4) low birth weight due to maternal substance use in pregnancy, 5) parental mental illness

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Risk Factor

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a personal or situational variable that reduces the chances that the negative outcome of interest will occur

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Protective Factor

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A protective factor in the presence of a risk factor

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Compensatory Factor

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anxiety, depression, somatic complaints & withdrawn behavior; internalizing sxs are higher for girls across development & diverge w/ age

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Internalizing Problems

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conduct problems, acting out, delinquency, ADHD; externalizing problems are higher for boys in early development & converge w/ age

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Externalizing Problems

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when analyzing children, we must consider all different areas that could cause disorder, rather than just biological influences

emotional influences, behavioral and cognitive influences (environmental factors from teachers, parents and peers), and family, cultural and ethnic influences.

All children need sensitive parenting styles that correspond to their individual needs.

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Jorge's Case Study

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the study of the causes of childhood disorders, considers how all processes react to produce disorders

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Etiology

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• Children and the environment are _____ as they both influence one another. Patterns of development tend to evolve over time

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Interdependent

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to the idea that changes are gradual and present or behavior can predict future tendencies (ex: conduct disorders)

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Continuity

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we cannot the future based on previous behaviors (ex: eating disorders)

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Discontinuity

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when children do not follow normal patterns of accomplishing milestones. There is a clear difference between them and their peers

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Adaptational Failure

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times when a child is more influenced by environmental factors. These can be bad or good. They are enhanced opportunities for learning

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Sensitive Periods

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nature and nurture are constantly interacting

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Neural Plasticity

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the role of genetics must be considered when analyzing childhood disorders. Genes influence our responses to the environment

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Behavioral Genetics

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the study between genes and traits. Genetic mutations can alter how the genes function

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Molecular Genetics

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what keeps us alive. Includes: hindbrain (autonomic activities), midbrain (movement), and the diencephalon (emotion)

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Brain Stem

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includes limbic system (emotional experience and regulation of basic drives), basal ganglia (organizes information about cognition, emotion, mood and motor function), cerebral cortex (divided between left and right hemisphere and helps us plan, reason and create)

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Forebrain

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part of the brain linked to anxiety and mood disorders

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Endocrine System

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the adrenal glands secrete _____ and _____ in response to stressful situations.

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Epinephrine and Cortisol

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parts of the HPA Axis

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Pituitary and Adrenal Glands

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that individual’s have different levels of emotional experience that provide clues for environmental sensitivities

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Emotion Reactivity

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an individual’s ability to control their emotions usually for a particular reason

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Emotional Regulation

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is a behavior that appears early in development indicating environmental interactions. Three dimensions: positive affect & approach, fearful, negative affect

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Temperament

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factors that produce similar outcomes among siblings

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Shared Environments

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factors that produce dissimilar behaviors among siblings leading to different outcomes

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Nonshared Environments

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variables that are associated at a particular point in time with no clear proof that one precedes the other

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Correlates

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variable that precedes an outcome of interest and increases the chances of a negative outcome

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Risk Factor

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variable that precedes an outcome of interest and decreases the chances of a negative outcome

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Protective Factor

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either directly or indirectly influence the occurrence of a behavior or disorder of interest

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Causes

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influence the direction/strength of the relationship of variables of interest

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Moderator Variables

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the process, mechanism, or means through which a variable produces a particular outcome

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Mediator Variables

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a process that specifies a set of standards for a method of measurement to be used consistently across different assessments of the construct of interest

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Standardization

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the consistency, or repeatability, of results obtained using a specific method of measurement

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Reliability

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the extent to which a method actually measures what it is supposed to measure

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Validity

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the extent to which a measure appears to assess the construct of interest

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Face Validity

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whether scores on a measure behave as predicted by theory or past research

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Construct Validity

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two components of construct validity

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Convergent and Discriminant Validity

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the correlation between measures that are expected to be related

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Convergent Validity

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the degree of correlation between measures that are not expected to be related

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Discriminant Validity

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unstructured observations in the child’s natural environment; researcher goes into child’s home, classroom, or day care center to observe and record child’s behaviors

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Naturalistic Observation

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highly structured observational settings (usually in clinic or lab); researcher sets up situations to illicit the behavior of interest

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Structured Observation

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accurately measures what it is supposed to be testing

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Validity

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reflects how much a particular variable accounts for the changes in a group

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Internal Validity

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degree to which findings can be generalized, or extended, to people, settings, times, measures, etc.

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External Validity

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simultaneous occurrence of 2 or more childhood disorders (very common)

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Comorbidity

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researcher has maximum control over IV or conditions of interest and can use random assignment of subjects to groups, include needed control condition, and control sources of bias

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True Experiment

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Most variables of interest in child psychopathology cannot be manipulated directly; so much of the research conducted uses a non-experimental

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Correlational Approach

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comparisons are made between conditions or treatments that already exist; also called quasi-experiments or known-group comparisons

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Natural Experiments

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a sample of people is identified at the current time and asked for info regarding an earlier time; fail to identify individuals exposed to a certain earlier experience who didn’t develop the problem

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Retrospective Design

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research sample is identified and then followed over time, with data collected at specified intervals; corrects for some of the problems identified in retrospective design

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Real-Time Prospective Design

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evaluates a specific variable of interest under conditions that only resemble or approximate the situation for which one wishes to generalize; often the purpose is to study a process that would otherwise be difficult to study

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Analogue Research

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intensive observation and analysis of one individual

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Case Study

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study the impact of a clinical treatment on one child’s problem; there are repeated behavior assessments over time; child serves has his/her own control group; most common design is ABAB where A is a child’s baseline and B is after an intervention phase, then the return-to-baseline phase is the second A and the final phase where the intervention is re-introduced is the second B

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Single-Case Experimental Design

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studies many behaviors in one individual and uses these behaviors as a baseline for which changes can be evaluated; each behavior is then modified with a treatment/intervention; then, if a behavior changes only when it is specifically treated, a cause-and-effect relationship between the treatment and the behavior is made

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Multiple-baseline Design

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study two different groups of kids

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Between-Group Comparisons

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focuses on narrative accounts, description, interpretation, context, and meaning. The purpose of qualitative research is to describe, interpret, and understand the phenomenon of interest in the context in which it is experienced.

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Qualitative Research

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child shows some form of agreement to participate

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Assent

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to achieve effective solutions to the problems being faced by children and their families, and to promote and enhance their well-being. should aid the clinician in determining practical and effective interventions.

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Clinical Assessment

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understanding the individual child and/or family and their presenting problems (clinicians)

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Idiographic Case Formulation

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assessing and understanding a group or phenomena (e.g. adolescents with depression (researchers)

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Nomothetic Formulation

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disorders that occur within a specific culture or locality (i.e.-Mal de ojo: evil eye)

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Culture Bound Syndromes

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age inappropriateness and pattern of symptoms (duration, frequency and severity), also impairment is key

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Normative Information

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categorical

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Taxonomic

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assessment is aimed at determining cause and treatment plan

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Problem Solving Process

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Best practice in psychology; consists of interview, behavioral assessment, standardized questionnaires and tests, multiple informants

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Multi-method assessment approach

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a task or set of tasks given under standard conditions with purpose of assessing some aspect of a child's knowledge, skill, or personality

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Psychological Testing

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clearly defined reference group

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Norm Group

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unfairly penalize children in low SES families or families that are not Euro-American middle class

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Culturally Biased

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a key ingredient in clinical assessments for a wide range of childhood disorders

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Intelligence Testing

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Stanford-Binet-5; Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children; WISC-IV and WPPSI-R

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Key Tests

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personality is defined as enduring traits or patterns of traits that characterize and say how someone will interact with environment; Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (adolescent), Personality Inventory for children

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Personality Testing

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attempts to link brain functioning with objective measures of behavior known to depend on an intact central nervous system (cognitive functions, perceptual functions, motor functions, emotional/executive control functions)

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Neuropsychological Assessment

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must recognize impact of labeling children

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Classification

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based primarily on informed professional consensus; classical is a pure categorical approach (clear and single underlying cause)

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Categorical Classification

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many independent dimensions or traits of behavior exist being significantly above average on any dimension will place you in the clinical range: internalizing vs. externalizing behavior (Achenbach system)

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Dimensional Classification

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treatment is likely to be more effective when compatible with the cultural patterns of the child and family

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Cultural Compatibility Hypothesis

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ensures that all children with disabilities have available to them a free, appropriate public education that emphasizes special education and related services designed to meet their unique needs and prepare them for employment and independent living. ensures that the rights of children with disabilities and parents of such children are protected

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Education for Handicapped Children Act

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failure to master or progress in accomplishing developmental milestones

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Adaptational Failure

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research that evaluates a specific variable of interest under conditions that only resemble or approximate the situation to which one wishes to generalize

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Analogue Research

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an effort to identify as many facotrs as possible that could be contributing to a child's problem behavior, thoughts and feelings, and to develop hypotheses about which ones are the most important and/or most easily changed

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Behavior Analysis of Functional Analysis of Behavior

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the evaluation of the child's thoughts, feelings, or behaviors in specific settings, based on which hypotheses are formulated about the nature of the problem and what can be done about it

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Behavioral Assessment

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a branch of genetics that investigates possible connections between a genetic predisposition and observed behavior

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Behavioral Genetics

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a system for representing the major categories or dimensions of child psychopathology and the boundaries and relations among them

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Classification

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the identification of a disorder from and examination of the symptoms

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Diagnosis

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a group of individuals who are followed overtime and who experience the same cultural or historical events during the same time period

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Cohort Studies

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the overlapping of two or more disorders at a rate that is greater than would be expected by chance alone

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Comorbidity

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the ability to adapt to one's environment; involves their performance relative to their same age peers as well as their individual course of development

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Competence

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a number that describes the degree of association between two variables of interest

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Correlation Coefficient

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a method of research whereby different individuals at different ages/stages of development are studied at the same point in time

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Cross-sectional Research

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information obtained from the parents about potentially significant historical milestones and events that might have a bearing on the child's current difficulties

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Developmental History

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a concept to describe the sequence and timing of particular behaviors, and to highlight the known and suspected relationships of behaviors over time.

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Developmental Pathways

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an approach to describing and studying disorders of childhood and adolescents in a manner that emphasizes the importance of developmental processes and tasks. the approach uses abnormal development to inform normal development and vice versa

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Developmental Psycholpathology

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psychosocial tasks of childhood that reflect broad domains of competence and tell us how children typically progress within each of these domains as they grow

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Developmental Tasks

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a rhetorical position for explaining development proposing that normal and abnormal developmental changes are abrupt and qualitative

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Discontinuity

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a dimension of emotional processes associated with individual differences in the threshold and intensity of emotional experience

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Emotion Reactivity

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the process by which emotional arousal is redirected, controlled, or modified to facilitate adaptive functioning

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Emotion Regulation

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the study of the incidence, prevalence, and co-occurrence of childhood disorders and competencies in clinic referred and community samples

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Epidemiological research

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the concept that similar outcomes may stem from different early experiences

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Equifinality

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the study of the causes of disorders. with respect to childhood disorders, etiology considers how biological, psychological, and environmental processes interact

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Etiology

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using background questionnaire or interview, information is obtained from the parents regarding potentially significant developmental milestones and historical events that might have a bearing on the child's current difficulties

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Family History

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theory that the behavior of an individual can be most accurately understood in the context of the dynamics of his or her family

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Family Systems

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an approach to the prevention of disease that involves education, public policy, and similar actions to promote health

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Health Promotion

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a regulatory system of the brain made up of the hypothalamus control center and the pituitary and adrenal glands; it influences a person's response to stress and his or her ability to regulate emotions

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Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis

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an approach to case formulation or assessment that emphasizes the detailed representation of the individual child or family as a unique entity. this approach is in contrast to the nomothetic approach, which instead emphasizes the general laws that apply to all individuals

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Idiographic Assessment Approach

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problem behaviors that begin during childhood and including anxiety, depression, somatic complaints, and withdrawn behavior

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Internalizing Problems

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problem behaviors that begin during childhood and encompass acting-out behaviors such as aggression and delinquent behavior

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Externalizing Problems

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a method of research whereby the same individuals are studied at different ages/stages of development

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Longitudinal Research

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the process, mechanism, or means through which a variable produces a specific outcome

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Mediator Variables

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the methods of genetics that directly assess the association between variations in DNA sequences and variations in particular traits. More than an association, variations in genetic sequences are thought to cause the variations in the trait(s). these methods offer more direct support for genetic influences on child psychopathology

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Molecular Genetics

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the concept that various outcomes may stem from similar beginnings

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Multifinality

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a clinical assessment that emphasizes the importance of obtaining information from different informants, in a variety of settings, using a variety of procedures that include interviews, observations, questionnaires, and tests.

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Multimethod Assessment Approach

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a single-case experimental design in which the effect of a treatment is shown the demonstrating that behaviors in more than one baseline change as a result of the institution of treatment

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Multiple-baseline Design

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an experiment in which comparisons are made between preexisting conditions or treatments (random assignment is not used)

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Natural Experiment

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the unstructured observation of a child in in or her environment

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Naturalistic Observation

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the malleable nature of the brain, evidenced throughout the course of development. Although infants are born with basic brain processes, experience leads to anatomical differentiation. certain synapses of the brain are strengthened and stabilized, while others regress and disappear

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Neural Plasticity

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a method of examining the structure and/or function of the brain. MRI, CT scan, PET, and fMRI

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Neuroimaging

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a form of assessment that attempts to link brain functioning with objective measures of behavior known to depend on an intact central nervous system

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Neuropsychological Assessment

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an approach to case formulation or assessment that emphasizes general principles that apply to all people. this approach contrasts with the idiographic approach, which instead emphasizes a detailed representation of the individual or family as a unique entity.

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Nomothetic Asessment Approach

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the assumption that early patterns of adaptation evolve over time and transform into higher-order functions in a structured manner. for instance, infant eye contact and speech sounds evolve and transform into speech and and language

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Organization of Development

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activities directed at decreasing the chances that undesired future outcomes will occur

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Prevention

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corrective actions that will permit successful adaptation by eliminating or reducing the impact of an undesired outcome that has already occurred

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Treatment

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efforts to increase adherence to treatment over time in order to prevent a relapse or recurrence of a problem

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Maintenance

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a form of assesment that presents the child with ambiguous stimuli, such as inkblots or pictures of people. they hypothesis is that the child will "project" his or her own personality on the ambiguous stimuli of other people and things. without being aware, the child discloses his or her unconscious thoughts and feelings to the clinician

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Projective Test

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a variable that precedes a negative outcome of interest and decreases the chances that the outcome will occur

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Protective Factor

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research for which the purpose is to describe, interpret, and understand the phenomenon of interest in the context in which it is experienced

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Qualitative Research

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the assignment of research participants to treatment conditions whereby each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to each condition. increases the likelihood that characteristics other than the independent variable will bey equally distributed across treatment groups

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Random Assignment

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the extent to which the result of an experiment is consistent or repeatable

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Reliability

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the ability to avoid negative outcomes despite being at risk for psychopathology

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Resilience

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a research design in which the research sample is asked to provide information relating to an earlier time period

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Retrospective Design

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a variable that precedes a negative outcome of interest and increases the chances that the outcome will occur

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Risk Factors

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identification of subjeccts at risk for a specific negative outcome

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Screening

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windows of time during which environmental influences on development are heightened, thus providing enhanced opportunities to learn

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Sensitive Periods

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a subtype of environmental influences that refers to the environmental factors that produce similarities in developmental outcomes among siblings living in the same household. if siblings are more similar than expected from only their shared genetics, this implies an effect of the environment both siblings share, such as being exposed to marital conflict or poverty, or being parented in a similar matter

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Shared Environment

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a subtype of environmental influences that refers to the environmental factors that produce behavioral difficulties among siblings living in the same household. nonshared environmental influence can be estimated and is calculated by subtracting the MZ twin correlation from 1.0

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Non-Shared Environmentz

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a type of research design most frequently used to evaluate the impact of a clinical treatment on a subject's problem. involve repeated assessment of behavior over time, the replication of treatment effects on the same subject over time, and the subject serving as his or her own control by experiencing all treatment conditions

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Single-case Experimental Design

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a construct to describe how people think about themselves in relation to others, and how they interpret ambiguous events and solve problems

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Social Cognition

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a theoretical approach to the study of behavior that is interested in both overt behaviors and the role of possible cognitive mediators that my influences such behaviors directly or indirectly

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Social Learning

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the process by which a set of standards or norms is specified for a measurement procedure so that it can be used consistently across different assessments

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Standardization

Front 158

observation of a subject, usually occurring in a clinic or laboratory, in which the subject is given specific tasks or instructions to carry out, and researchers look for specific information

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Structured Observation

Front 159

the child's innate reactivity and self-regulation with respect to the domains of emotions, activity level, and attention; the child's organized style of behavior that appears early in development, such as fussiness or fearfulness, which shames the child's approach to his or her environment and vice versa

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Temperament

Front 160

the degree to which a treatment can be shown to work in actual clinical practice, as opposed to controlled laboratory conditions

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Treatment Effectiveness

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the degree to which a treatment can produce changes under well-controlled conditions that depart form those typically used in clinical practice

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Treatment Efficacy

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the extent to which a measure actually assesses the dimension or construct that the researcher sets out to measure

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Validity

Front 163

view that childhood behavior disorders represent downward extensions of adult disorders

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Adultomorphism