Psych 4001 - Ch 3

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Determining causality is a

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“task of enormous magnitude”

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Donald Brown

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found 369 Human Universals by searching the literature on every known extant and extinct culture

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A relatively small number of causal processes or conditions appear to account for most if not all universals.

These processes or conditions are:

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1) the diffusion of ancient (and generally very useful) cultural traits,

2) cultural reflection of physical fact,

3) the operation and structure of the human mind, and (behind the latter)

4) the evolution of the human mind.

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Study of causes and risk factors for abnormal behavior includes:

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Necessary, sufficient, and contributory causes

Feedback and bidirectionality in abnormal behavior

Diathesis-stress models

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Etiololgy: Casual pattern of abnormal behavior

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•Necessary cause

•Sufficient cause

•Contributory cause

*These are very likely better explained by the diathesis – stress model

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Abnormal Behavior: types of causes

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Necessary Cause: If Disorder Y occurs, then cause x must have preceded it

Sufficient cause: If cause x occurs, then disorder y will also occur

Contributory cause: If X occurs, then the probability of Disorder Y increases

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Risk of Altitude Exposure in Sickle Cell Disease

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Mukulla J. Godwin, RN and Stephen H. Embury, MD,Susan Claster, MD

The risk of altitude-induced hypoxemia causing painful crisis was determined in a group of 45 predominantly adult patients with sickle cell disease. The patients were divided into two groups:

those with hemoglobin (Hb) SS and those with Hb SCor Hb Sβ-thalassemia. Altitude exposures were divided into airplane travel and mountain visits, and the latter subdivided into stays at 4,400 or 6,320 ft. The average risk of crisis was higher for both groups while in the mountains (37.9 percent and 56.6 percent, respectively) than it was during airplane travel(10.8 percent and 13.5 percent, respectively). The latter group had more splenic crises than the former group and also had a greater risk at 6,320 ft(65.9 percent) than at 4,400 ft (20.0 percent). Patients with sickle cell disease are at high risk of crisis in the mountains, and we advise those with intact spleens to breathe supplemental oxygen during air travel.

Obviously you have to be at a high altitude to get hypoxemia, but, at elevations between 4400 and 6320 feet

It is not sufficient… you also have to have sickle cell disease

(at elevations of 20,000 feet pretty much everyone gets hypoxemia)

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distal casual factors

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something that happens in childhood that does not “cause” anything until adulthood

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•proximal (immediate) causal factors

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•the iron spike thatwent thru Phineas Gage’s skull

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Inthe study of abnormal psychology, why can it be difficult to specify whichconditions are causes and which are effects?

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Bidirectionality:overly suspicious people might treat others in a hostile manner… people who aretreated in a hostile manner might not want you around… you are then moresuspicious of others because they don’t want you around and may do “something”to get rid of you.

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Diathesis-Stress Models

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With a low genetic load fordepression/schizophrenia/etc. you might not display the condition unless thereis a relatively strong stressor.

Its necessary to have a some sort ofgenetic predisposition, but not sufficient.

With a very high genetic load fordepression you will probably still need a stressor, but, it is not necessary tohave a strong stressor, almost anything will do…

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Diathesis-Stress Models

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Resilience:Ability to successfully adapt to very difficult circumstances (which soundslike a “lack of diathesis”)

Protective factors:Influences that modify person’s response (having a susceptibilityto depressioncan be reduced by a very stable environment, which sounds like “lackofstress”)

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Viewpoints for Understanding
the Causes of Abnormal Behavior

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•Several competing explanations, which maybe a product of the fact that the human brain is one of, if not the, mostcomplex “things” we have ever come across.

•Thereare approx. 100B neurons and each one can have up to 15K dendrites.

•The Biological Viewpoint

•The Behavioral and Cognitive Viewpoint

•The Sociocultural Viewpoint

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Four categories of biological factors relevant to maladaptive behavior include:

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Neurotransmitter and hormonalabnormalities in brain

Genetic (vulnerabilities)

Temperament

Brain dysfunction and neuralplasticity38596

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How Neurons Communicate?

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Neurotransmission and Abnormal Behavior

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Sarter, M., Bruno, J. P., and Parikh, V.(2006). Abnormal NeurotransmitterRelease Underlying Behavioraland CognitiveDisorders: Toward Concepts of Dynamic and Function-SpecificDysregulation. Neuropsychopharmacology,1, 1–10

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Over 50 years ago, Woolley and Shaw(1954) noticed thestructural similaritiesbetween ergot alkaloids and serotonin (‘thelatest hormone-like substance to be discovered’; p. 228), and suggested that because of the‘mentaldisturbances’produced by some alkaloids, ‘deficiency ofserotonin maycontribute to the production of some mental disorders’ (p.230). Contemporary hypothesis describing neurotransmitter abnormalitiesunderlying neuropsychiatric disorders have continued to characterize theseabnormalities in terms of steady-state deviations from normal levelsof neurotransmitterrelease or extracellular concentrationsof neurotransmitters.

For example, ‘…too much dopamine in criticalregions in the brain, or too little glutamate…’ (Fischbach,2006; p. 734) has been widely hypothesized to contribute to the manifestation ofthe psychotic and cognitive symptomsof schizophrenia(see also Laruelle et al,2003). Likewise, increased or sensitized release ofdopamine instriatal regions has been closely linked with compulsive drugseeking behavior(eg, Everitt andRobbins,2005;Robinson and Berridge,2003). Other examplesinclude theabnormally low levels of cholinergic neurotransmission, considered to representan essential variablein themanifestation of dementia (Mesulam, 2004), or abnormally highlevels of cholinergic transmission, reflecting a disinhibited corticalcholinergic input system, which has been hypothesized to contribute to theimpairments inthe filteringof irrelevant stimuli in schizophrenia (Sarter, 1994; Sarter et al, 2005).

Based largely on the main pharmacologicalproperties of serotoninandnoradrenaline uptake inhibitors used for the treatment ofdepression, deficient extracellular levels ofthese monoamines havelong been hypothesized to play a key role in the development of the coresymptoms of thisdisorder (Berton and Nestler,2006; Mongeau etal, 1997; Schildkraut,1965). Furthermore, the antidepressant actions of a wide range of compounds acting onopioid, galanin, orcannabinoid receptors have formed the basis for suggestions that abnormallevels of these neurotransmitters/ neuromodulators contributeto the symptoms of depression.

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R v. Craddock (1980) and R. v. Smith(1981). Craddock was a barmaid with a lengthy criminal record: thirty prior sentencesfor theft, arson and assault. Charged with murderinga co-worker, years of diaries and institutional records indicated acyclical patternto her violent behaviour.

She was found guilty of manslaughter basedon aplea of diminished responsibility; that PMS 'turned her into a raging animal eachmonth andforced her to act out of character' (Benedek 1985 p. 24). Sentencing wasdelayed forthree months to see if she would respond to progesterone. Subsequently, thejudgealso considered PMS as a mitigating factor. As a result, Craddock wasplaced onprobation and court ordered progesterone treatment.

Later that year, Craddock who never had clearrecollections of her crimes, received no progesterone for four days. On thefourth day, having fasted, she threw a brick through a window and reported herself tothe police. She was arrested, received progesterone andwas released by the Magistrate's Court.

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Evidence of higherlevels of testosterone

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linkedto male aggression, violence, and related pathological behaviors are toonumerous to list

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Genetic and Polygenic

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Very few, if any, single genes influencehuman behavior. Most, if not all, genetic influences on behavior involve manygenes.

Weinherit genes of course, and, if you inherit a number of genes predisposing youto some kind of behavior you are more likely to display this (adaptive ormaladaptive) behavior, given the right conditions.

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HumanChromosome Pairs

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Downsyndrome is achromosomal condition that is associated with intellectual disability, acharacteristic facial appearance, and weak muscle tone (hypotonia) ininfancy. All affected individuals experience cognitive delays, but theintellectual disability is usually mild to moderate.

Most cases of Down syndrome resultfrom trisomy 21, which means each cell in the body has three copies ofchromosome 21 instead of the usual two copies.

Less commonly, Down syndrome occurswhen part of chromosome 21 becomes attached (translocated) toanother chromosome during the formation of reproductive cells (eggs and sperm)in a parent or very early in fetal development.

Affected peoplehave two normal copies of chromosome 21 plus extra material from chromosome 21attached to another chromosome, resulting in three copies of genetic materialfrom chromosome 21. Affected individuals with this genetic change are said tohave translocation Down syndrome.

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Human Chromosome Pairs

Early androgen exposure modulates spatialcognition in congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH).Mueller SC,Temple V, Oh E, VanRyzin C,Williams A, Cornwell B, Grillon C,Pine DS, Ernst M, Merke DP.

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Major questions remain about the exactrole of hormones in cognition. Furthermore, the extent to which earlyperturbation in steroid function affects human brain development continues tobe a wide open area of research.

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Human Chromosome Pairs (cont.)

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Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), agenetic disorder of steroid dysfunction characterized in part by in uteroover-production of testosterone, was used as a natural model for addressingthis question.

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Human Chromosome Pairs (cont.): theMorris Water Maze task

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an established measure of sex differencesin spatial cognition inrodents

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Human Chromosome Pairs (cont.): An extra X or Y chromosome: contrasting the cognitive and motor phenotypes in childhood in boys with 47,XYY syndrome or 47,XXY Klinefelter syndrome.

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Ross JL, Zeger MP, Kushner H, Zinn AR, Roeltgen DP.

OBJECTIVE: The goal of this study was to contrast thecognitive phenotypes in boys with 47,XYY (XYY)karyotype and boys with 47,XXY karyotype [Klinefeltersyndrome, (KS)], who share an extra copy of the X-Y pseudoautosomalregion but differ in their dosage of strictly sex-linked genes.

METHODS: Neuropsychological evaluationof general cognitive ability, language, memory, attention, visual-spatialabilities, visual-motor skills, and motor function.

RESULTS: Study cohort: 21 boys with 47,XYY and 93 boyswith 47,XXY (KS), age 4-17 years, and 36 age-matched control boys. Boththe XYY and KS groups performed less well, on average,than the controls on tests of general cognitive ability, achievement, language,verbal memory, some aspects of attention, and executive function, and motorfunction. The boys with XYY on average had more severeand pervasive language impairment, at both simple and complex levels, andthe boys with KS(XXY) onaverage had greater motor impairment in gross motorfunction and coordination,especially in running speed and agility.

CONCLUSIONS: The results from these large XYY and KScohorts have important neurocognitive and educational implications.From the neurocognitive standpoint, the presenting findings afford anopportunity to gain insights into brain development in boys with XYY and thosewith KS. From the educational standpoint, it is critical that boys with XYY orKS receive appropriate educational interventions that target their specificlearning challenges. These findings also provide important information forcounseling clinicians and families about these disorders.

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Genotype

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Total geneticendowment: this is fixed at conception

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Phenotype

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•Observed structuraland functional characteristics: genes “unfold” at different times and fordifferent reasons.

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Genotype–Environment Correlations: Individual's genotype may shape environment in the following ways

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•Passive effect: talking to your children more (usually)benefits their intellectual growth

•Evocative effect: verbal children “cause” people to talk tothem more, thus becoming more verbal

•Active effect: verbal children may join the debating team,creating their own “niche”

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Genotype-environmentinteraction:

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•People with different genotypes maybe differentially sensitive or susceptible to their environments (this isbasically the diathesis-stress model again)

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Methods for Studying Genetic Influences:

Traditional Methods

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Family history method:schizophrenia affects approx. 1% of the population but between 10% and 15% of those with a first degree schizophrenia relative. If both parents have it thisgoes up to 40%

Twin method: if one twin “has” schizophrenia between 28% and 30% of the other twin will manifest the condition.

Adoption method: MZT > MZA > DZT > DZA > Similar Aged Sibs Together >

Similar Aged Sibs Apart.

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Methods for Studying Genetic Influences:

More recent Methods

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Linkage analysis: often enough a gene for a psychological trait/illness is linked to another gene (eye color or blood group) which can be easily observed. From this the exact location of a gene may be determined(bipolar on chromosome 11, schizophrenia on chromosomes 22, 6, 8, and 1)

Association studies: the occurrence, more often than can be readily explained by chance, of two or more traits in a population of individuals, of which at least one trait is known to be genetic. “For most mental disorders that are known to be influenced polygenetically, association studies are more promising than linkage studies for identifying small effects of any particular gene.

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Temperament

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* Temperament: Child's reactivity and characteristic ways of self-regulation

* Early temperament is basis from which personality develops

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Starting at about 2-3 months of agefive dimensions of temperamentcan be identified (which clearly indicates that they are not learned)

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* fearfulness

* Irritability and frustration

* Positive affect

* Activity level

* Attentional persistence and effortful control

These are related to three importantdimensions of adult personality:

(1) neuroticismor negative emotionality

(2) extraversionor positive emotionality

(3) constraint(conscientiousness and agreeableness)

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Impact of Biological Viewpoint: “we nowrecognize the important role of biochemical factors and innate characteristics,many of which are genetically determined, in both normal and abnormal behavior”

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Effect of drugs: if some/many mental illnesses arebiological (hormones and neurotransmitters) then the pharmaceutical applicationshould be obvious. However, most conditions do not “go away” solely with drugs;many people also need to talk thru what has happened.

Ambiguity in mental disorder definition: is schizophrenia always an “illness”? Just because something is bio/neurological does not mean its an illness. And, of course, just because introversion/extroversion are biologically “based” does not mean they are illnesses (nor can I remember anyone ever saying or writing that they were)

Effect of CNS mediation: this is basically the diathesis-stress model again. You have a nervous system and it interprets stimuli but (usually) traumatic events might alter the processing of your CNS.

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Psychological Viewpoints

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* Psychodynamic

* Cognitive-Behavioral

* Behavioral

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The Psychodynamic Perspective: Freud theorized that a person's behavior results from interaction of:

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•Id: life force v death wish… blablabla.Brain stem and limbic responses to the world look exactly like Freud’s Id.Babies need to live according to the pleasure principle because they need toeat, stay warm and dry, and be looked after

Ego: mediates the demands of the Idwith the realities of the external world. This looks exactly like local-globalprocesses as a function of interhemisphereic interaction which doesn’t come online until age 4-5

Superego: supposed to be the morality thatyou’ve acquired from society which might be an argument if it wasn’t for thefact that morality is nearly identical all around the world and it unfolds atvery nearly the same age everywhere. .

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The Psychodynamic Perspective:

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Ego often deals with neurotic or moral anxiety by resorting to ego-defense mechanisms

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Ego-Defense Mechanisms

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Displacement: don’t kick your dog when you’re mad at your boss

Fixation: sports “fan” is short for fanatic. Fans usually aredisappointed with something in their lives

Projection: how many “public figures” have you see campaign against someimmorality that they themselves are doing nearly every day?

Rationalization: sour grapes, I didn’t want to make the team/graduate etcanyway

Reaction formation: an exaggerated adoption of seemingly oppositebehavior.

Regression: reverting to a earlier developmental stage (crying, highervoice) when stressed

Repression: preventing a painful thought from surfacing

Sublimation: channeling frustration into a substitute activity.

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Psychosexual Stages of Development

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Freud conceptualized five psychosexualstages of development

•Oral stage (ages 0 to 2)

•Anal stage (ages 2 to 3)

•Phallic stage (ages 3 to 5 or 6)

•Latency period (ages 6 to 12)

•Genitalstage (after puberty

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Classical Conditioning

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Ifconditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without unconditioned stimulus, extinction will occur

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Instrumental Conditioning

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Instrumental (or operant) conditioning: New responses are learned and tend to reoccur if they are reinforced

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Generalization and Discrimination

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* Generalization: Response is conditioned to one stimulus and can be evoked by other similar stimuli

* Discrimination: Learning to distinguish between similar stimuli

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Observational Learning

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Learning through observation alone:humans have mirror neurons which allow this.

Without directly experiencing anunconditioned stimulus: the biggest are fear and disgust. We are “smart” enoughto see it in others eyes to avoid doing it ourselves.

The “bobo doll” experiment is so wildlyexaggerated it should be struck from every text book.

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The Cognitive-BehavioralPerspective

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• Focuses on how thoughts andinformation processing become distorted

• Leads to maladaptive emotions andbehavior

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The Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective

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Schema: Underlying representation of knowledge that guides currentprocessing of information

Attributions: Process of assigning causes to things that happen

Attributional style: Characteristic way in which individual may tend to assign causes to bad or good events

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Sociocultural Viewpoint

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•Sociocultural factors and humandevelopment and behavior

•Individual personality developmentand norms and values of larger society

•Society-specific stressors specificand mental disorders

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Sociocultural Viewpoint is concerned with:

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• Impact of culture on mental disorders

• Universality of some disorders

• Prevalence rates across cultures

• Norms for behavior control across cultures

• Parent-child attachment across cultures

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Prejudice and Discrimination in Race,Gender, and Ethnicity

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•Increased prevalence of certain mentaldisorders may be related to:

•Prejudice against minority groups andwomen

•Perceiveddiscrimination and self-esteem

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Social Change and Uncertainty

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• Rate and pervasiveness of change

• Change and stress

• National and global crises andpredisposition to mental illness

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Urban Stressors: Violence and Homelessness

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Rapid urban growth

* violence

* higher rate of mental illness

* homelessness

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The impact of the sociocultural viewpoint

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what was previously an almost exclusive concern with individuals has broadened to include societal, communal, and familiar factors related to mental health

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Unresolved Issues

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None of the current theories address whole spectrum of abnormality

Eclectic approach is not successful at theoretical level

Biopsychosocial perspective is the only current attempt at unified approach