Psych 4-6

Front 1

Absolute threshold-

Back 1

the minimum amount of stimulation that allows for an organism to detect a stimulus.

as stimulus intensity increases, an organism’s probability of detecting that stimulation gradually increases.

Front 2

Cones-

Back 2

visual receptor cells located at the back of the retina that are responsible for perception of color and most of our vision during the daytime.

provide more precisely detailed vision than rods.

Front 3

Dark adaptation-

Back 3

the adjustment of the eyes to lower levels of light. During this process, cones adapt first, and then rods; completed in an average time of 30 minutes.

Front 4

Fovea-

Back 4

a small, depressed area of densely-packed cones that is located at the center of the retina. Vision acuity is at its greatest here

Front 5

Perception-

Back 5

process during which stimuli are selected, organized, and interpreted

Front 6

Phi phenomenon-

Back 6

first defined by Max Wertheimer; the illusion of movement created when a series of visual stimuli are presented in rapid succession.

An example is T.V., which is actually just a series of still pictures which rapidly precede one another.

Front 7

Retina-

Back 7

light-absorbing tissue located on the inside back surface of the eye that processes visual images and sends information the brain through the optic nerve.

contains visual cells called cones and rods.

Front 8

Rods-

Back 8

visual receptors that are located outside of the fovea and are sensitive to dim light and responsible for night vision.

Front 9

Sensory adaptation-

Back 9

declined rate of sensitivity due to prolonged stimulation. For example, when you first walk into a room, you may notice a specific scent or odor, but after having been in that room for a while, you will no longer be able to detect the scent.

Front 10

Biological rhythms

Back 10

fluctuations in physiological functioning that are tied to the passage of time. Humans have four of these lasting one year (relates to sexual activity and the onset of mood disorders), 28 days (relates to the female menstrual cycle, male hormonal secretion, and mood fluctuations), and 90-minutes (relates to hunger, alertness, and daydreaming.

Front 11

Circadian rhythms

Back 11

daily, 24-hour cycles that humans and other species go through.

regulate sleep, hormone secretion, blood pressure, urination, and other physical functions.

Front 12

Designer drugs

Back 12

variations of known recreational drugs that are illicitly manufactured and molecularly modified so that new substances are created. Ecstasy is an example

Front 13

electroencephalograph (EEG)

Back 13

a device that uses recording electrodes that have been attached to the scalp to monitor the brain’s electrical activity over time.

use brain waves to record cortical activity; different patterns are associated with different states of consciousness.

Front 14

Hypnosis

Back 14

a state of heightened suggestibility that is typically induced by another person or hypnotist during which false memories can be created, and perceptions altered.

Front 15

latent content

Back 15

According to Freud, this is the hidden/disguised meanings of the events of a dream.

Front 16

Meditation

Back 16

a mental exercise that requires conscious attempts to focus attention in non-analytical ways; Zen, yoga, and transcendental meditation are all common practices. Many who practice this claim that it has many beneficial effects, both short-term and long-term. Although such claims have some validity, they are not for certain.

Front 17

Night terrors

Back 17

abrupt awakenings that typically occur during stage 4 sleep.

often cause people to scream, awaken, and bolt upright. Few people are able to recall what caused it and returning to sleep is a generally easy task.

Front 18

Psychoactive drugs

Back 18

chemical substances that are used to alter behavioral, mental, and emotional functions.

used for medical, spiritual, or recreational uses, among others.

Front 19

REM sleep

Back 19

a stage of deep sleep during which dreams are most vivid and memorable

marked by high-frequency, low-amplitude brain waves and rapid movements of the eyes.

Front 20

Sleep apnea

Back 20

a condition with unknown origins during which a person stops breathing for 15-60 seconds and is awakened by frequent, reflexive gasps for air.

Front 21

Somnambulism

Back 21

a disorder with unknown causes that is most common in children ages 11 and 12.

occurs when a person arises (usually during the first two hours of sleep) and wanders around despite their remaining to sleep.

Front 22

Classical conditioning

Back 22

known as Pavlovian conditioning, is a type of learning that occurs through association of stimuli with reflex responses. Ivan Pavlov demonstrated this conditioning through an experiment during which he measured the amount of saliva produced by a dog when a tone was played and meat powder was presented.

Front 23

conditioned response (CR)

Back 23

Based on previous conditioning, this is a learned reaction to a conditional stimulus. For example, the salivation of Pavlov’s dogs at the sound of the bell

Front 24

conditioned stimulus (CS)

Back 24

A once neutral stimulus that, through conditioning, gains the ability to trigger a conditioned response. The bell in Pavlov’s study was a conditioned stimulus.

Front 25

Extinction

Back 25

the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response.

occurs when a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. For example, Pavlov repeatedly presented the dog in his experiment with only the tone and without the meat powder. Over time, the dog ceased to salivate at the sound of the toe.

Front 26

Instrumental learning

Back 26

another term for operant conditioning as termed by Edward Thorndike. Thorndike set up experiments to determine whether or not animals could actually think and believed that responses were instrumental in obtaining desired outcomes.

Front 27

law of effect

Back 27

Edward Thorndike’s principle that states that behaviors which receive good consequences tend to be repeated over behaviors which receive bad consequences, and therefore, behaviors are selected based upon their consequences. In other words, if the act of jumping elicits a treat, and the act of sitting elicits a whack on the nose, a dog will jump more often than sit.

Front 28

Negative reinforcement

Back 28

a type of reinforcement that encourages a certain response by removing an unwanted stimulus.

An example of negative reinforcement would be plugging your ears when the noise level is too loud—the action of plugging your ears will relieve the noise (the negative stimulus).

Front 29

Operant conditioning

Back 29

a form of learning in which a subject’s behavior is modified by the consequences of their responses. In most cases, this will emit voluntary behavior, but can sometimes influence involuntary responses as well. An example
would be a mouse’s learning not to go to its exercise wheel after having been shocked several times upon going there before. In this case, the mouse would be receiving a shock (consequence) based on its behavior of going to the exercise wheel (response).

Front 30

Phobias

Back 30

irrational, persistent fears of specific situations or objects.

People who have these will make conscious attempts to avoid whatever it is they are afraid of at all costs.

typically acquired through classical conditioning.

Front 31

Positive reinforcement

Back 31

a type of reinforcement that encourages a certain response by presenting a rewarding stimulus. For example, if a child were to receive $20 for every “A” he/she got on a test, they would be receiving positive reinforcement

Front 32

Respondent conditioning

Back 32

another term for “classical conditioning” that has developed over the years.

Front 33

Secondary reinforcers

Back 33

any type of stimulus that gains the ability to reinforce behavior due to its association with primary reinforcers. Money is a common example of this because it provides us with access to primary reinforcers such as food and shelter.

Front 34

variable-ratio (VR)

Back 34

a schedule where a reinforcer is given after a varying amount of nonreinforced responses. For example, a teacher hands out candy to children who answer an average of five questions correctly.

Front 35

Hypnosis

Back 35

a state of heightened suggestibility that is typically induced by another person or hypnotist during which false memories can be created, and perceptions altered

Front 36

latent content

Back 36

According to Freud, the hidden/disguised meanings of the events of a dream

Front 37

7. Meditation

Back 37

a mental exercise that requires conscious attempts to focus attention in non-analytical ways

Front 38

9. Psychoactive drugs

Back 38

chemical substances that are used to alter behavioral, mental, and emotional functions.

used for medical, spiritual, or recreational uses, among others.

Front 39

10. REM sleep

Back 39

a stage of deep sleep during which dreams are most vivid and memorable.

marked by high-frequency, low-amplitude brain waves and rapid movements of the eyes.

Front 40

11. Sleep apnea

Back 40

a condition with unknown origins during which a person stops breathing for 15-60 seconds and is awakened by frequent, reflexive gasps for air

Front 41

Secondary reinforcers

Back 41

any type of stimulus that gains the ability to reinforce behavior due to its association with primary reinforcers