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93 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Causes of attraction
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PSP
- Proximity - Similarity - Physical attractiveness |
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Proximity
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- Studies show that who you sit by will be your friend
- Much to do with the Mere Exposure Effect |
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Similarity
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We tend to like people similar to us because:
- We think they will like us, - Similar others validate our beliefs, - Disagreement on important issues -> repulsion |
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Similarity matters less in...
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short-term situations
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Halo effect
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is usually accurate.
Hotties tend to be more confident, etc. |
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Equity theory
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Exchange vs. Communal relationships
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Exchange relationships
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- Characterized by an immediate repayment of favors.
- Part of the Equity theory. |
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Communal relationships
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- Partners respond to each others' needs over a prolonged amount of time without feeling the necessity of immediate repayment.
- Part of the Equity theory. |
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Social Exchange Theory
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- Relationships operate on an economic model of costs & benefits.
- Rewards: things we like about the person - Costs: things that annoy us about the person |
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Comparison Level (Social Exchange Theory)
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- We all carry around in our heads a certain ratio of rewards/costs that we think we deserve.
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Comparison Level for Alternatives (Social Exchange Theory)
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- Your perception of the ability that you could replace your current partner with a better one.
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Passionate love (Infatuation) is important when?
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- When starting a relationship
(exists for a brief period of time) |
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Companionate love is important for...
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- making a relationship survive
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Women's evolutionary approach for a partner
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- High parental investment:
choosier about mating, value resources, prefer older men, jealous about emotional infidelity |
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Men's evolutionary approach for a partner
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- Fairly low investment:
less choosy about mating, value attractiveness |
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3 original attachment styles:
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- Secure
- Anxious/ambivalent - Avoidant |
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SECURE attachment style:
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- Attachments marked by trust
- Other will continue to provide love and support |
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ANXIOUS/AMBIVALENT attachment style:
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- Fear of abandonment
- Negative feelings about self |
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AVOIDANT attachment style:
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- Positive towards others
- Defensive detachment from others |
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Attachment theory:
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- Attachment styles change between relationships & change over time.
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AVOIDANT types can be classified into two groups:
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FEARFUL
- Negative view of themselves (fear that they are unlikeable) DISMISSIVE - Positive view of themselves (but think others are unreliable) |
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Attachment & sex:
SECURE attachment style |
Generally have GOOD sex lives.
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Attachment & sex:
PREOCCUPIED attachment style |
- May use sex to pull others close to them
- More likely to engage in risky sex, have sex to please partner |
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Attachment & sex:
AVOIDANT attachment style |
- Have a desire for connection
- May avoid sex, or use it to resist intimacy |
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Collins & Feeney, 2004
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- Positive or neutral feedback before speech
- Partners w/ different attachment styles - When participants received supportive notes, no differences in attachment levels - When receiving neutral notes, those high in avoidance & anxiety perceived message as less supportive - Secure participants performed the best |
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Evolutionary Approaches of Pro-Social Behavior
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- Kin selection
- Norm of reciprocity - Group selection |
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Non-Evolutionary Approaches of Pro-Social Behavior
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- Social exchange theory
- Ego-altruism hypothesis |
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(Evolutionary Approaches)
Kin Selection |
- Saving our relatives (aka gene pool, inclusive fitness)
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Pro-social genes will exist when...
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- c < b x r
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(Evolutionary Approaches)
Norm of Reciprocity |
"I am helping you because I expect that one day I may need you to help me."
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(Evolutionary Approaches)
Group selection |
A village populated by people willing to die for each other has a greater chance of survival than a village filled with apathetic people.
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Genetic similarity plays a small role in _______ helping decisions, but a larger role involving ___________ situations.
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Every day; life or death
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(Non-Evolutionary Approaches)
Social Exchange Theory |
Do the benefits (social rewards) of saving someone outweigh the costs (social costs)?
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(Non-Evolutionary Approaches)
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis |
- Helping "out of the goodness of your heart."
- Results from empathy - the ability to put oneself in the shoes of another person and to experience events and emotions (joy & sadness) the way that person experiences them. |
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Happy moods lead to...
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...more helping!
- Positive moods increase sociability which leads to more helping - Mood preservation |
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Sad states lead to...
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...more helping *IF* the person thinks that helping will improve their mood.
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Bystander Intervention Tree
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NIAKI
1 - Notice the event 2 - Interpret the event as an emergency 3 - Assume responsibility 4 - Know appropriate form of assistance 5 - Implement decision |
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Challenges to Bystander Intervention Tree
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1 - In a hurry
2 - Pluralistic ignorance 3 - Diffusion of responsibility 4 - Lack of knowledge/competence 5 - Cost of helping is too high |
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What is aggression?
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Intentional act aimed at causing physical or psychological pain.
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Hostile aggression
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Stems from anger
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Instrumental aggression
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Means to some goal other than causing pain
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(Instinctive vs. Learned)
Instinctive |
Freud - aggression instinct
Genetic/Evolutionary - protection, reproduction. However, we use situational cues to inhibit/express. |
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(Instinctive vs. Learned)
Learned |
- Variation among species
- Cultural differences - Social learning theory |
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Culture of Honor
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In cultures of honor, men are raised to respond aggressively to perceptions of threat & respect.
- Southern men endorse more honor-related aggression & are more sympathetic to these offenders. - Developed in response to economic conditions - Argument-related homicide rates higher among white Southern men than white Northern men. |
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Culture of Honor Insult Study
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IVs:
- Northern or Southern UM students - Insulted or Not Insulted DVs: - Physiology - Behavior Southerners were more angered by insult, whereas Northerners were more amused. |
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Testosterone & Cortisol increases among __________ men.
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Insulted southern
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Frustration-Aggression Theory
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- Frustration is more likely to produce aggression if one is thwarted on the way to a goal in a manner that is either illegitimate or unexpected.
- Children/toy study (Dollard 1930s) - Theory has been revised to explain displaced aggression-- scapegoating-- barking dog gets kicked, punched car, etc. |
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Relative Deprivation
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People are more likely to revolt when they feel they have less than they deserve, not simply less in an absolute sense.
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Aggressive Stimuli "Weapons Effect"
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The mere presence of an aggressive object in an otherwise neutral environment increases the degree of aggressive behavior.
(Insulted subjects with a gun in the room gave more shocks to fellow students vs. only a tennis racket being present) |
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Most studies show that watching violence...
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...DOES increase the frequency of violent behavior, angry emotions, & hostile thoughts.
- Actively playing video games has a stronger effect than merely watching. |
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(Laboratory Studies)
Why does actively playing video games have a stronger effect on increasing violent thoughts compared to merely watching? |
- Increases physiological arousal
- Triggers automatic tendency to copy behavior (social learning theory) - Primes aggressive ideas |
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(Longitudinal studies)
Evidence suggests that the more violence children watch on TV... |
...the more violence they exhibit later in life as teenagers & adults.
- Problem of cause & effect - Some research shows that this effect is strongest among children who already show aggressive tendencies. - Effect is similar for violent video games. |
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Imitation: Biblical Violence
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Religious & non-religious Ps read violent passage attributed to:
- Bible or ancient scroll - God sanctioned or did not sanction violence DV: Noise blasts |
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Aggression _____ after reading about God-sanctioned violence
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Increased!
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The Numbing Effect of Media Violence
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Violent video games & TV also make people less likely to help others in need.
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Reasons for Media-Aggression Link
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- Desensitization
- Weakens inhibitions - Provides instrumental suggestions for violence - Primes aggression (label arousal as anger) - Distorts perceptions of "dangerous world" |
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The pros of Video Games
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- Prosocial games increase helping behavior
- Playing first person shooter games increases cognitive ability |
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Case Study - Rejection & School Shootings
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Peer-Rejected Adults:
- Derogate others - Send noise blasts to strangers - Make others consume gross food - Show brain activation in functional pain areas - Show impaired executive function - Half difficulty self-regulating |
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Leary et. al Analysis (2003):
Social Psychological Approach |
Content analyzed media reports from school shootings between 1995-2001 (N=14).
Focus on rejection - Chronic - Acute |
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Summary of Leary et. al Analysis (2003):
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Chronic & acute rejection common
- Only 2/14 without rejection - 10/15: previous psychological problems - 6/15: fascinated w/ guns+weapons - 4/15: fascinated w/ death+violence |
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Reducing aggression
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- Punishment?
- Catharsis? - Emotional Expression - Apologize - Modeling Non-aggression - Problem-Solving Skills/Communication Training - Building Empathy |
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What is prejudice?
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A hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinguishable group, based solely on their membership in that group.
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Cognitive component of prejudice
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- Stereotypes
- Illusory correlation - Intergroup bias |
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Affective component of prejudice
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- Most irrational, stubborn part of prejudiced attitudes
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Behavioral component of prejudice
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- Discrimination
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Stereotypes
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Prejudice exists because of stereotypes
- A stereotype is a generalization about a group of people, in which certain traits are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the group. - Categorization & generalization are at the heart of prejudice - Social Cognition/Categorization (stereotypes are heuristics) |
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What perpetuates stereotypes?
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- The illusory correlation
- Attributional biases - Realistic conflict theory |
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The Illusory Correlation
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- Involves perceiving a relationship that does not exist or is weaker in reality than is perceived
- Formed by the pairing of distinctive events |
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Attributional Biases
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- Ultimate Attribution Error:
The tendency to make dispositional attributions about a person's individual negative behavior & then generalize to their entire ethnic, racial, religious group or gender. |
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Realistic Conflict Theory
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- Limited resources lead to conflict between groups, naturally leading to prejudice & discrimination.
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What are the consequences of categorization?
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- Inner Group Bias
- Out-Group Homogeneity |
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Inter Group Bias
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- Main motive: Self-esteem (we belong to the good group)
- We gain self-esteem from identifying with social categories |
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Out-group Homogeneity
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- Rutgers vs. Princeton music study
- Assumed more diversity in music taste of their own student body |
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Discrimination
(The behavioral component of prejudice) |
An unjustified negative or harmful action toward the members of a group solely because of their membership in a group.
- Explicit forms: drug arrests in Seattle - Micro-aggressions: Interviewers behavior toward minorities - Social distance |
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Discrimination is perpetuated through...
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...social norms (institutionalized discrimination including racism & sexism) & customs.
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Measuring bias
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Self Reports
Modern Racism - Bogus Pipeline: Fake lie-detecting machine - changed self-report of prejudice (cannot eliminate effects of self-deception) - IAT |
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What is Stereotype Threat?
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Sense that one can be judged or treated in terms of stereotype, or that one might confirm the stereotype.
- "A threat in the air" |
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Stereotype Threat Summary
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Situations can cause stereotype threat
Stereotype threat -> Disengagement & disidentification Stereotype Threat is not inevitable - Situational solutions |
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Stereotype Threat Study (Steele & Aronson, 1995)
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IVs:
- Black & white participants - Diagnostic or Non-Diagnostic test DV: - Test performance |
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Stereotype Threat ____ Blacks' Test Performance
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Lowers
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Women ________ on Math Tests Described as Showing Sex Differences
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Under-Perform
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Consequences of Stereotype Threat: Disengagement & Disidentification
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- Unlinking of self from performance in the domain ("I am just not good at math")
- Ceasing to base self-worth on performance in domain ("I am good at other things, but not math") - A sense of not belonging in the domain ("Math is not for me") |
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Reducing Stereotype Threat
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- Theories of Intelligence (Malleable)
- Self-Affirmation - Learning about Stereotype Threat How do these work? - Promote malleable beliefs about intelligence - Reduce worry about stereotypes - Promote trust & belongingness |
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Heider's Balance Theory
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Triangle, sides multiply to +1 if balanced.
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Halo effect
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"What's beautiful is good"
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Is the halo effect accurate?
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"Lookers" are not more intelligent, dominant, higher in self-esteem, or mentally healthier.
More socially skilled & less lonesome. |
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Passionate Love
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- Strong feelings of longing, desire, & excitement
- Accompanied by physiological arousal - Found in 147/166 cultures |
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Companionate Love
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- Feelings of intimacy, understanding, & affection
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Sternberg's Triangle
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Passion
- Emotional state with high bodily arousal Intimacy - Feelings of closeness, mutual understanding & concern Commitment - Conscious decision, remains constant |
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Triangular Theory of Love
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Intimacy = top, "liking"
Intimacy + Passion = "romantic" Passion = "infatuation" Passion + Commitment = "fatuous love" Commitment = "empty love" Commitment + Intimacy = "companionate" Intimacy + Passion + Commitment = "consummate love" |
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The factors liking someone
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- Proximity
- Similarity - Physical attractiveness |
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Love
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- Types of love
- Evolutionary approaches - Attachment approaches - Theories of Relationship Satisfaction |
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(When do we help others?)
Rural vs. Urban |
People are less helpful in big cities than in small towns because urban life causes them to keep to themselves.
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