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119 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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cognition |
the way information is processed and manipulated in remembering,thinking, and knowing |
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artificial intelligence (AI) |
the science of creating machines that are capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are performed bypeople |
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thinking |
manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting in a critical or creativemanner |
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concepts |
mental categories that can be used to group objects, events, and characteristics |
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prototype model |
the way a person looks for a familiar resemblance when they are evaluating whether something belongs to a particular concept |
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prototype |
the average characteristic or group of traits of a concept |
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problem solving |
an attempt to find the appropriate way of achieving a goal when one is not readily available |
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the steps in problem-solving |
- find and frame problems - develop good problem-solving strategies - evaluate solutions - rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time |
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subgoaling |
a strategy that involves setting intermediate goals or defining intermediate problems that put you in a better position for reaching a final goal or solution |
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algorithm |
a strategy that guarantees a solution to a problem |
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heuristic |
a shortcut strategy that suggests a solution to a problem but does not guarantee a solution |
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fixation |
reemploying a prior strategy and failing to look at the problem from a fresh, new perspective |
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functional fixedness |
when an individual fails to solve a problem because of being fixated on the usual functions |
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reasoning |
the mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions |
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deductive reasoning |
reasoning from the general to the specific |
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decision making |
evaluating all the alternatives and then making an informed choice |
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the two systems of reasoning and decision making |
automatic and controlled |
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loss aversion |
the tendency to strongly prefer to avoid losses compared to an attempt to acquire gains |
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confirmation bias |
the tendency to search for and use information that supports our ideas rather than refutes them |
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hindsight bias |
the tendency for a person to report falsely that they predicted an outcome |
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availability bias |
a prediction about the probability of an event that is based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events |
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base rate neglect |
the tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific, vivid information |
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representative heuristic |
the tendency to make judgments about group membership based on physical appearances or stereotypes rather than available information |
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critical thinking |
thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence |
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mindfulness |
being alert and mentally present for everyday activities |
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open-mindedness |
being receptive to the possibility of other ways of looking at things |
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creativity |
the ability to think about something in novel, unusual ways and come up with unconventional solutions to problems |
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divergent thinking |
thinking that produces many answers to the same question |
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convergent thinking |
thinking that there is only one answer to a question |
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intelligence |
an all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tests, solve problems, and learn from experience |
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validity |
the extent to which a test measures what it intends to |
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reliability |
the extent to which a test yields a consistent measure that can be reproduced |
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standardization |
the development of uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test |
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William Stern |
developer of the intelligence quotient (IQ) |
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How is IQ calculated? |
a person's mental age divided by their chronological age and then multiplied by 100 |
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mental age (MA) |
level of mental development relative to that of others |
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normal distribution |
a bell-shaped curve with the majority of the scores falling in the middle of the distribution |
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culturally fair test |
intelligence test that is designed to be culturally unbiased |
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heritability |
the proportion of the differences in IQs in a population that is attributed to genetic differences |
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gifted |
having an IQ score of 130 or higher and/or a superior talent for something |
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intellectual disability |
(formerly termed mental retardation) a condition of limited mental ability in which a person has an IQ score below 70 and has difficulty adapting to everyday life |
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Robert J. Sternberg |
developer of the triarchic theory of intelligence |
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the triarchic theory of intelligence |
Intelligence is composed of analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence. |
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Howard Gardner |
He suggested that there are nine different types of intelligence: - Verbal - Mathematical - Spatial - Bodily-kinesthetic - Musical - Interpersonal - Intrapersonal - Naturalistic - Existentialist |
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language |
a form of communication that is based on a system of symbols; can be spoken, signed, or written |
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Benjamin Whorf |
developer of the linguistic relativity hypothesis |
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the linguistic relativity hypothesis |
Language determines the way we think. |
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development |
the pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurthroughout the course of life, involving both growth and decline |
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cross-sectional design |
research design in which a group of people are assessed on a psychological variable at one point in time |
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nature |
a person’s biological inheritance, especially his or her genes |
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nurture |
an individual’s environmental and social experiences |
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resilience |
a person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times |
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the major domains of development
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- physical processes - cognitive processes - socioemotional processes |
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conception |
when a single sperm cell from the male merges with the female's ovum (egg) to produce a zygote |
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zygote |
a single cell with 23 chromosomes from the mother and 23 chromosomes from the father |
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teratogens |
agents that cause birth defects |
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the preferential looking technique |
a technique that involves showing an infant two separate objects; if the infant then shows a preference for one object over the other, we may infer that the infant can tell the objects apart |
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adolescence |
the developmental period spanning the transition from childhood to adulthood, beginning around 10 to 12 years of age and ending at 18 to 21 years of age |
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puberty |
a period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation that occurs mainly in early adolescence |
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limbic system |
a set of subcortical brain structures central to emotion, memory, andreward processing |
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Most adults reach their peak physical development during what age? |
their 20s |
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Leonard Hayflick |
developer of the cellular-clock theory |
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the cellular-clock theory |
the theory based on the fact that cells can divide a maximum of 100 times and that as a person ages, his or her cells become less capable of dividing |
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schema |
a mental concept or framework that organizes information and provides a structure for interpreting it |
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assimilation |
the process that occurs when a person incorporates new information into existing knowledge |
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accommodation |
the process that occurs when a person adjusts his or her schema to new information |
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Piaget’s stages of cognitive development |
- the sensorimotor stage - the preoperational stage - the concrete operational stage - the formal operational stage |
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Jean Piaget |
pioneer in tracing cognitive development through childhood into adulthood |
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thesensorimotor stage |
lasts from birth to about two years of age; in this stage, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with motor (physical) actions |
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object permanence |
the understanding that objects continue toexist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched; occurs throughout the sensorimotor stage |
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thepreoperational stage |
occurs between ages two and seven; in this stage, children have limited symbolic thinking; characterized by egocentric thinking and intuitive judgement |
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egocentric |
incapable of taking another person's mental states into account |
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intuitive |
based on gut feelings rather than logic |
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theconcrete operational stage |
occurs between ages seven to eleven; involves using operations and replacing intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning in concrete situations |
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theformal operational stage |
occurs between ages eleven to fifteen; in this stage, thinking is more abstract, idealistic, and logical; develops hypothetical-deductive reasoning |
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hypothetical-deductive reasoning |
a type of reasoning in which individuals think in hypothetical possibilities and devise plans to solve problems |
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the core knowledge approach |
a perspective on infant cognitive development that holds that babies are born with domain-specific knowledge systems |
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Lev Vygotsky |
pioneer in recognizing that cognitive development is an interpersonal process that happens in a cultural context |
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wisdom |
expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life |
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temperament |
an individual’s behavioral style and characteristic ways of responding |
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a child with an easy temperament |
- is usually in a positive mood - establishes regular daily routinesin infancy |
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a child with a difficult temperament |
- reacts negatively - cries a lot - has irregular daily routines |
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a child with a slow-to-warm-up temperament |
- has a low activity level - is somewhat negative - demonstrates a low intensity of mood |
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infant attachment |
the close emotional bond between an infant and his or her caregiver |
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secure attachment |
how infants use their caregivers as a secure base from which to explore their environment |
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Erik Erikson |
developer of the life-span development theory |
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the life-span development theory |
the theory that there are eight psychosocial stages of development: - trust vs. mistrust - autonomy vs. shame and doubt - initiative vs. guilt - industry vs. inferiority - identity vs. identity confusion - intimacy vs. isolation - generativity vs. stagnation - integrity vs. despair |
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the trust vs. mistrust stage |
occurs during the first 1½ years of life; trust develops when a baby’s basic needs of comfort, food, and warmth are met |
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the autonomy vs. shame and doubt stage |
occurs from 1½ years of age through three years of age; in this phase, children seek independence through autonomy |
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the initiative vs. guilt stage |
occurs between ages three and five; children in this stage seek out responsibility and initiative |
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the industry vs. inferiority stage |
occurs from ages six through puberty; children in this stage achieve industry by mastering knowledge and intellectual skills |
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Diana Baumrind |
pioneer in describing parenting styles |
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authoritarian parenting |
a strict punitive parenting style in which a parent firmly limits and controls a child with little verbal exchange |
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authoritative parenting |
a more collaborative parenting style that encourages a child to be independent but still places limits and controls on behavior |
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neglectful parenting |
a parenting style distinguished by a lack of parental involvement in a child’s life |
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permissive parenting |
a parenting style that places few limits on a child’s behavior and lets a child do what he or she wants |
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James Marcia |
developer of the concept of identity status to describe an adolescent’s position in the development of an identity |
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Jeffrey Arnett |
developer of the concept of emerging adulthood |
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emerging adulthood |
the transitional period from adolescence to adulthood, from approximately 18 to 25 years of age, characterized by experimentation and exploration |
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gender |
the broad set of characteristics of people as males and females |
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gender roles |
expectations for how females and males should think, act, and feel |
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the Gender similarities hypothesis |
the idea that men and women (and boys and girls) are much more similar than they are different |
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Kohlberg’s theory |
Kohlberg believed that moral development consists of three levels: - preconventional level - conventional level - postconventional level |
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prosocial behavior |
behavior that is intended to benefit other people |
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Kübler-Ross’ stages of dying |
- denial - anger - bargaining - depression - acceptance |
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Bonanno's theory of grieving |
There are four different patterns of grief: - resilience - recovery - chronic dysfunction - delayed grief or trauma |
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brainstorming |
when a group of people openly throw out a range of possible solutions to a problem, even some that might seem crazy |
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the basic properties of language |
- phonology - morphology - syntax - semantics - pragmatics |
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phonology |
a language's sound system |
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morphology |
a language's rules for word formation |
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syntax |
a language's rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases and sentences |
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semantics |
the meaning of words and sentences in a particular language |
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pragmatics |
the useful character of language and the ability of language to communicate even more meaning than is said |
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language development from 0-6 months |
cooing |
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language development from 6-12 months |
babbling and then first words |
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language development from 12-18 months |
understanding of about 50+ words |
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language development from 18-24 months |
200+ words and two-word combinations |
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language development from 15-20 years |
understanding of adult literary works |
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Noam Chomsky's theory about language |
Humans are genetically prewired to learn language at a certain time in life andin a certain way. |
