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145 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Define memory. |
The means by which individuals draw on past knowledge to use in the present; the cognitive processes involved in the encoding, storing and retrieving of information. |
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What is encoding? |
It is the process by which sensory information is converted into a form that can be used by our memory system |
Stuff you see turned into memories |
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What is storage? |
It is the process of maintaining information in memory |
Forming memories |
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What is retrieval? |
It is the process of recovering stored information from memory for use in the present |
Recalling past events |
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Why does information get lost from the sensory store? |
It does because of decay and masking |
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What occurs in the short term store? |
Rehearsal |
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Why is information lost in the short term store? |
It is because of decay and displacement |
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What happens between the short term store and the long term store? |
Memory is moved to the long term store from the short term to be remembered. Memory can be transferred back to be recalled |
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Why is information lost from the long term store? |
It is because of interference, organization dysfunction and inappropriate cues |
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What happens in sensory memory? |
The stimulus persists in the system after the stimulus has been removed |
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What is iconic memory? |
It is sensory memory for vision |
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What is echoic memory? |
It is sensory memory for hearing |
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What are the characteristics of sensory memory? |
It stores information in its original raw form, has a large capacity and has a very limited duration |
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What was Sperling (1960) interested in? |
The capacity and duration of iconic memory |
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What did Sperling do in his experiment? |
12 items were very briefly presented on a screen and participants were asked to recall as many as they could |
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What did Sperling add to the experiment to try and get better results? |
A high, medium and low tone was played to indicate which row to report |
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How did the tone effect the results? |
Subjects reported, on average, 9 to 10 items |
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How did Sperling test the duration of iconic memory? |
The tone was delayed for various durations |
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What was the conclusion of the iconic memory test? |
The iconic memory holds a great deal of information for less than .5 seconds |
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What is masking? |
The presentation of a patterned stimulus after a target stimulus to erase the sensory memory image of the target |
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What is masking used for |
To control how long the subject "sees" the stimulus |
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What does theShort Term Store do? |
Holds the information that we are currently working on or thinking about |
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What did Miller's experiment on capacity show? |
The short term store can only hold 7, + or - 2, "chunks" of items at a time |
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What is a "chunk"? |
A chunk is a meaningful piece of information |
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What is the duration of the short term store? |
It is only a few seconds, but can be kept longer if it is rehearsed |
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What were subjects asked to do to prevent rehearsal of the word list in the Brown/Peterson-Peterson Procedure? |
Subjects were asked to count backwards by three |
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How can information be lost from the short term store? |
It can decay and if too much information enters the store, some information will be displaced |
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How can you prevent losing information from the store term store? |
Rehearsal so it can be transferred into the Long Term Store |
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What is working memory? |
It is an active processing centre that works on incoming visual, spatial and auditory information as well as information retrieved from the long term memory |
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What's the capacity and duration of the long term store? |
It has an unlimited capacity and an exceptionally long duration |
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How can memory be lost from the long term store? |
It can be lost to decay, organic dysfunction, inappropriate retrieval cues and interference |
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What is retrograde amnesia? |
It is memory loss that occurs back in time. |
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What does temporally grade mean in regards to retrograde amnesia? |
It means that memories of the more recent past are more affected than those of the distant past |
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What is retroactive interference? |
It is when new information interferes with our ability to remember previously learned information |
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What is proactive interference? |
It is when previously learned information interferes with our ability to learn new material |
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What is the primacy effect? |
It is when words at the beginning of the list are recalled better than words in the middle |
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Why does the Primacy Effect occur? |
Words at the beginning of the list receive more rehearsal and are transferred to the Long Term Store |
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What is the Recency Effect? |
It is when words at the end of a list are recalled better than words in the middle |
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Why does the Recency Effect occur? |
Words at the end of the list are still in the Short Term Stire when the list is recalled |
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What did HM suffer from? |
Anterograde amnesia |
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What is anterograde amnesia? |
It is memory loss that occurs forward in time and is the inability to create new memories |
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What is Korsakoff's syndrome? |
It is when someone suffers from both retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia |
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What are long term Recency effects? |
People who remember information from the end of a list long after the information would have decayed from the short term memory |
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What is contextual distinctiveness? |
It is when the words at the beginning and end of a list are more distinctive |
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Why are words at the beginning of the list more distinctive? |
They are occurring when you are starting a new activity which establishes a new context |
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Why are words at the end of the list more distinctive? |
They occur closest to the context of your most current experiences |
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What occurs in Level of Processing? |
Information that is processed to a deep level will be remembered better than information that is processed to a shallow level |
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What is maintenance rehearsal? How does this effect the memory? |
It is when material is simply repeated to oneself, which does not result in a stronger memory trace and it does not make information more likely to be remembered |
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What is elaborate rehearsal? How's it effect memory? |
It involves deeper, meaningful analysis where information is elaborated upon and leads to a stronger memory trace |
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What is the Self Reference Effect? |
People remember information better if they generate it themselves than if they are provided with the information |
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What two types of encoding conditions did Slamecka and Graf use in their experiment? |
Pairs of synonyms that a subject has to read, and a word followed by the first letter of a second word so a subject has to generate it themselves |
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What did the Slamecka and Graf experiment show? |
It showed that subjects recognized the words better if they generated them themselves (89%) to (71%) |
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What were the two conditions words were presented in during the Morris, Bransford and Frank's experiment? |
They were either rhyme or semantic |
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What happened in the test phase when subjects were presented the Standard Recognition? |
Old and new words were presented and subjects had to decide whether or not they were presented in the study phase |
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What happened in the test phase when subjects were presented the Rhyme Recognition? |
Words that rhyme with old and new words were presented and subjects had to decide whether they rhyme with words presented in the study phase |
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What did the results of the Morris, Bransford and Franks experiment? |
The results indicated that the best remembering will occur when the processes used at study are reengaged at test |
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What is encoding specificity? |
The best remembering will occur when the encoding context and the retrieval context are the same |
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What are retrieval cues? |
Stimuli that are associated with information stored in memory and can be used when trying to remember that information |
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What is context dependent memory? |
Remembering is best if the encoding and remembering contexts are the same |
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What is state dependent memory? |
Remembering is best if your state is the same during encoding and remembering |
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What is mood dependent memory? |
Remembering is best if your mood is the same during encoding and remembering |
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What does explicit memory involve? |
The conscious recollection of previous experiences |
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What is the relationship between implicit memory and conscious recollection? |
It does not involve conscious recollection of previous experiences, but behaviour is nonetheless affected by those experiences |
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What do direct tests of memory require an individual to do? |
Make references to specific prior experiences and the goal is to measure explicit memory |
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What do indirect tests of memory do? |
They do not require an individual to make references to specific prior experiences but nonetheless measure memory for those experiences with a goal of measuring implicit memory |
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What do Stem Completion test do? |
They show the first few letters of a word and subjects are asked to complete the word stem with the first word that comes to mind |
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What Fragment Completion Tests do? |
They show incomplete words and subjects are asked to complete the fragments |
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What is priming? |
It is when people respond faster to an item when it was preceded by a related item than if it was preceded by an unrelated item |
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What is recall? |
It is when a subject is given the context and has to provide the item |
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What is recognition? |
It is when a subject is given the item and has to provide the context |
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How do older people perform in comparison to younger adults on direct and indirect tests of memory? |
They person similarity on indirect tests but older adults do worse on direct tests of memory |
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How do amnesic patients and control subjects person on indirect and direct tests of memory? |
Amnesic patients perform similarity as control subjects on indirect tests but worse on direct tests |
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What is autobiographical memory? |
It is the recollections people have of their own personal experiences and observations |
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What are flashbulb memories? |
They are vivid memories for the situation in which you first learned of a surprising or emotionally arousing event |
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What is reconstructive memory? |
It is the idea that memory is not an exact replication of an original experience but is instead a reconstruction of that experience |
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What is false memory? |
Memory for events that did not occur |
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What is reconstructive memory? |
It is not a perfect reproduction of the past, instead it is a reconstruction influenced by our biases, previous knowledge, etc |
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What is elaborate processing? |
The more information is elaborated upon, the better it will be remembered |
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What is the total time hypothesis? |
The more time you spend on material, the more likely you will be to remember it |
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What is the spacing effect? |
Spacing studying out overtime is more effective than studying all at once |
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What are mnemonics? |
They are memory aids that are designed to facilitate the recall of new information |
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What are image methods? |
Using visualization to remember things |
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What is keyword method? |
When you imagine a relationship between the word you are trying to remember with something that is familiar |
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What is cognition? |
It is the mental processes involved with thinking, knowing, problem solving, decision making, remembering and language use |
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What is problem solving? |
When you want to reach a goal, but the situation is not immediately obvious |
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What is trial and error? |
It is a problem solving strategy in which several solutions are attempted until one is found that works |
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What is algorithms? |
It is a systematic problem solving strategy that is guaranteed to produce a solution |
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What are heuristics? |
It is a rule of thumb that allowed one to make judgements that are quick but sometimes in error |
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What are mean ends analogies? |
It is breaking the problem down and finding solutions to sub goals |
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What does searching for analogies involve? |
Trying to find a connection between the current problem and a previous problem that was successfully solved |
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What are insight problems? |
The solution to a problem seems a long way off and then you suddenly have a solution |
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What did K. Bower ask subjects to do while looking at insight problems? |
Subjects were asked to think of one word that could sensibly go with all the words on a word list |
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How did subjects in K. Bower's experiment feel about their answers while giving them? |
The results showed that subjects did not feel close to a solution until they had a solution |
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Why does insight feel sudden? |
The qualitative shift between not having and having the solution, but it is difficult to appreciate and remember the in between steps |
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What is a mental set? |
When a person continues to try the same solution that they have tried for other problems when there are other solutions |
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What is functional fixness? |
Is it the tendency to view an object in its typical role, thereby failing to appreciate its utility for other functions |
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What is convergent thinking? |
It is bringing together information focused on a single function |
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What is divergent thinking? |
It is the ability to think flexibly and entertain a wide range of possible solutions |
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What is creativity? |
It is the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas |
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What does creativity require? |
It requires divergent thinking |
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What ha decision making? |
It is the cognitive processes involved in evaluating and choosing from amount a set of alternatives |
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What is availability heuristic? |
It is the tendency to make judgements about the frequency and likelihood of an event in terms of how readily examples can be brought to mind |
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What is representatives heuristic? |
The more an item/event resembles the most typical examples of a category or concept, the more likely we will conclude that it belongs to that category |
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What is anchoring heuristic? |
Making decisions based on information that is already available |
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What is language? |
It is a system that combines basic elements such as sounds and gestures to form structured utterances that convey meaning |
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What is the critical period hypothesis? |
It is when there is a sensitive period during childhood in which children possess the natural ability to develop language |
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What is intelligence? |
It is the ability that accounts for individual differences in mental test performance or the capacity to learn from experience and adapt successfully to one's environment |
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What is general intelligence? |
It is the broad intellectual ability that underlies more specific abilities |
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What does multiple intelligence refer to? |
Several types of intelligences underlying behaviour |
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What is evidence in favour of multiple intelligences? |
Child prodigies, savant syndrome and brain damaged individuals who lose some abilities but retain others |
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What is savant syndrome? |
People who are mentally challenged hey are extraordinarily talented in some way |
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What is linguistic intelligence? |
It is a verbal aptitude consisting of speaking, reading and writing skills |
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What is logical mathematical intelligence? |
It is abstract reasoning skills used in equations and programming |
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What is spatial intelligence? |
It is the ability to visualize, orient oneself in space and navigate through space |
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What is musical intelligence? |
It is the ability to understand qualities of sound, compose and play an instrument |
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What is bodily kinesthetic intelligence? |
It is the ability to control fine movements |
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What is interpersonal intelligence? |
The ability to understand and interact with others |
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What is interpersonal intelligence? |
The ability to have insight into one's own thoughts and feelings |
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What is naturalistic intelligence? |
It enables us to recognize, categorize and draw upon certain features into the environment |
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What is fluid intelligence? |
It is the natural ability to reason and solve problems |
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What is crystallized intelligence? |
It is knowledge and abilities acquired as a result of experience |
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What happens to fluid and crystallized intelligence over time? |
Fluid intelligence tends to decline with age whereas crystallized does not tend to decline |
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What is emotional intelligence? |
It is the ability to think intelligently about one's owns emotions and the emotions of others |
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What does Goleman argue are the four domains of emotional intelligence? |
Self awareness, self management, empathy and the ability to put all the pieces together to be skilled in harbouring relationships |
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Why was the Binet Intelligence Test developed? |
To identify children who would have difficult in school and determine a student's mental age |
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What is mental age? |
It is the chronological age that best fits a child's level of performance on a test of mental ability |
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How was the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale divided? |
It was divided into two scales; verbal and performance scale |
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What is an aptitude test? |
A test testing the ability to acquire knowledge in a particular area |
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What is an achievement test? |
A test that tests current knowledge in a particular area |
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What are group aptitude tests? |
Tests that are administered to many individuals at the same time and are often used for selection into undergraduate and graduate programs |
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How are IQ scores distributed? |
On a normal curve with a mode, median and mean of 100 and a sd of 15 |
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What are percentile scores? |
The percentage of people or observations that fall below a given score in a normal distribution |
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What is reliability? |
The consistency of the test results |
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What are test retest reliability? |
The extent to which a test yields consistent results over time |
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What is split half reliability? |
The extent to which two halves of a test yield consistent results |
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What is validity? |
It is the extent that a test measures or predicts what it is designed to measure or predict |
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What is face validity? |
It is the extent to which a test appears to measure what it is supposed to measure |
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What is predictive validity? |
It is the extent to which a test can predict a concurrent or future outcome |
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What is construct validity? |
It is the extent to which a test measures the theoretical variable that it is supposed to measure |
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What is a construct? |
It is a variable that is not directly observable, that has been developed to explain behaviour on the basis of some theory |
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What is content validity? |
It is the extent to which a measure reflects the specific intended domain of interest |
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What is standardization? |
It is keeping the testing, scoring, and interpretation procedures the same across all administrations of the test |
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Why do some individuals perform better on IQ tests? |
It is because they are members of the dominant culture and the tests are biased in their favour |
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What is the stereotype threat? |
The knowledge of stereotypes can lead to changes in performance |
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What is ability grouping? |
The placement of children in particular groups in school based on their academic performance or performance on IQ tests |
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