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59 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Terms regarding the misuse of language:
Direction and misdirection of thought; Ambiguity, vagueness, equivocation; Etymology, reification; Bureaucratese; Euphemism; Framing; Negations; Marked words; Contrast and context; and Anchoring
Direction and Misdirection of thought
The words you use direct or misdirect your thoughts and emotions.
Semantic Slanting
You have a certain argument so you can cause certain feelings
Ambiguous
Language that's unclear
Vagueness
Lack of precision
Equivocation
Changing the meaning of the word in one conversation
Etymology
The study of the origin of words
Reification
Giving an abstract object a name and thinking of it as a physical thing
Bureaucratese
Formal language that is unfamiliar to most people.
Euphemism
substituting a desirable term for one that is less desirable (“tissue paper” vs. “toilet paper”)
Framing [with leading questions, negations, and marked words]
Asking a question where the right answer is implied
Negations
Trying to deny something that is plausible
Marked words
Words that have a very specific definition
Contrast
There is a specific judgment and evaluation which is made relative to some [very specific] frame of reference
Context
An important determinant of meaning we assign to events
Anchoring
The figure that’s used as a beginning point of comparison for making an estimate
3 components of memory
• Acquisition
• Retention
• Retrieval
3 types of memory (by length of retrieval)
Working, short term, and long term
Working Memory
Anything up to one second
Short Term Memory
– One second to one minute
– Usually about 7 pieces of information
Long Term Memory
More than a minute
Types of long term memory
– Declarative – being able to speak about it
– Procedural – some sort of process associated with it
Types of declarative memory
– Episodic – recall though a certain “episode”
– Semantic – anything you have a factual based memory on.
Motor Memory
Special type of procedural memory (i.e. tying your shoes, getting up to walk, etc.)
Memory by awareness level
– Explicit – things you can explicitly state (i.e. state out of the blue) or explain.
– Implicit – cannot be accessed by visual methods (kind of like déjà vu)
Illusion of truth
If something seems familiar, your brain will believe it’s true
Classical conditioning
– Pairing events over time
(Ex: a fire drill – you hear the bell and know you need to get out)
Serial-Position Effect
Indicates the tendency to recall more things from the beginning or end of a list
Metacognition
– A technique to look inside your head
– Thought-protocol analysis
Definitions of intelligence:
1.) Concerned with how you solve problems
2.) What one learns from one’s own experiences
*3.) May or may exist period (Gardner)*
*4.) Whatever the test measures (Dr. Boring)*
Types of intelligence
1.) IQ Test: IQ = (Mental age/Chronological age) x 100
2.) The Bell Curve: “Intelligence is substantially inherited” (Causes: poverty poor nutrition, crime, idleness, etc.)
3.)Spearman’s “G”:“G” is his notation for intelligence
4.)Crystallized and Fluid intelligence (2 factor theory: Crystallized intelligence and Fluid intelligence)
5.) Multiple intelligences (7 or 8 factor theory)
Eugenics
“Breeding” people to make society more intelligent
Crystallized Intelligence
Ind. verbal ability numeric ability, and skill enterprise
Fluid Intelligence
Ind. the ability to reason quickly, think abstractly, novel task, special ability, detect # and letter sequences
Rules for clear communication
1.) Tell the listener what you believe they want to know
2.) Don’t tell the listener what they already know
3.) Vary the style of your communication, dependent upon the characteristics of the listener
4.) Tell the truth
5.) Use a straightforward style
6.) Use manner and context to clarify meaning
Re-representation (Definition)
We need to represent our beliefs in multiple ways – to draw concept maps and other spatial layouts that represent ideas visually when info is highly verbal and to use verbal strategies when the info is highly spatial.
Types of re-representation
1.) The linear array – Has a direction to it (I.E. timelines)
2.) Hierarchies (tree diagrams)
3.) Matrices (tables)
Premise indicators
• Because
• Since
• If
• Given that
• As shown by
• As indicated by
• The reasons are
Conclusion Indicators
• Therefore
• Hence
• So
• Thus
• Consequently
• It follows that
• As a result of
Inductive Reasoning
1.) Process where a sequence of info builds toward a conclusion.
2.) Building from the specific to the general
**Example: 19, 23, ________, 31, 37 ~ What goes in the blank is 29 (they are all prime numbers)
Deductive Reasoning
1.) When generalized info is known about and a conclusion about a specific piece of info is required
• General to the specific
• Given the info presented, who is the tallest?
Linear syllogisms
A premise (statement) in a problem that gives info about the orderly relationship among terms.
Rules about linear syllogism:
• When things are congruent, they’re easier to solve
• Solutions will be facilitated if the second term in the 1st premise is the 1st term of the second premise
• Negations make the problem hard to solve
• Comparisons between adjacent terms are more difficult than comparisons between end terms
• A good strategy to solve difficult syllogisms is to use a linear array
• Marked words that limit the meaning of a sentence are difficult to process
Conditional reasoning (General Definition)
– Reasoning that is based on a conditional statement
– If, then statements – If “p” then “q”
Critical thinking
– A skill or strategy to increase the chances of a desired outcome.
– It is thinking that is:
• Purposeful
• Reasoned – good logic behind thinking
• Goal-directed – work towards something
Anatomy of an argument
• Premises – reasons why
• Conclusion – the point of the argument
• Assumptions – something that is not stated, but rather implied
• Qualifiers – limits the scope of the argument ~ where it goes and what it applies to
• Counterargument – refutes your argument
Mnemonic device
– Most are based on a few, simple memory principles
– We use them everyday, most commonly in the form of *external memory aids* (i.e. sticky notes, calendars, appointment books)
Keywords
Serve as “hooks” for info that is leaned later
Other Mnemonic Aids
We can also use rhymes, methods of place, first letter mnemonics (i.e. HOMES to remember the Great Lakes), mnemonic principles, prospective memory aids (memory for a future event), and the cognitive interview (based on principles derived from cognitive psychology about how info is organized and the types of retrieved cues that can work to prime recall).
Psycholinguistics (Definition)
The branch of psychology that looks at language
4 main concepts of psycholinguistics
• Implications and inferences
• Analogies
• Words and definitions (What is crime?)
• Labeling something (categorizing)
What is an expert?
• What credentials do they really have?
==> Someone with a PhD in psychology is not qualified to give financial advice
• Is the “expert” an independent party?
==> Are they following the money in that they endorse the product but they also own the company?
• Trust someone with credentials
==> Published in respectful journals or attended one conference
• Someone with first hand knowledge
==> Naval commander USS Cole vs. “talking head”
• Method used?
==> How was the work conducted?
Persuasion techniques
o Ingratiation – flattery is used
o Reciprocity – giving someone something so they return the favor (i.e. the Costco samples)
o The multiple requests:
• Foot-in-the-door: Where you start off with a small request and work up to a larger one
• Door-in-the-face: Start off with a large request and move to a smaller one
• Lowballing – changing the deal mid-stream (from low to high)
Halpern’s four step guide to become a better critical thinker
o Explicitly learn the skills of critical thinking
o Develop the disposition for effortful thinking and learning
o Direct learning activities in ways that increase the probability of transcontextual transfer (structure training)
o Make metacognitive monitoring explicit and overt
Schema/schemata
– Internal representation of knowledge. The way we organize our knowledge about the world.
– Our personal internal representations about the nature of the world.
Prototypical thinking
o People tend to think in terms of the best example (prototype) of a category
• Our prototypes vary from culture to culture, but they are relatively standard within a culture
==> If you live in Australia, you might think of a “kiwi” when you think of a bird, but this would be unusual for Americans or other people of countries.
• Thinking in terms of prototypes biases how and what we think
Cognitive economy
o Cognitive economy – Because short-term memory is active, we tend to be more “lazy” with it.
• It is any process that reduces the mental workload ad makes thinking less effortful.
The Interference Theory of Forgetting
– Proactive interference: previous info interferes with new info
– Retroactive interference: new info interferes with old info (you have trouble recalling old info because you’re used to the new info)
7 Fallacies
1.) Popularity and testimonials
2.) Irrelevant Reasons
3.) Put downs
4.) Slippery Slope
5.) Knowing the Unknowable
6.) Straw-Person
7.) Appeals to Authority