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124 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is language?
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our spoken, written, or gestured works and the way we combine them to communicate meaning.
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What are the 4 properties of language?
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symbolic, semantic, generative, and structured.
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symbolic is...
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represents an object, action, events, and ideas
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semantic is...
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meaningful
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generative is...
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number of symbols can be combined in an infinite number of ways to generate novel messages
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structured is...
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there are rules that govern arrangement of words into phrases and sentences
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hierarchial structure of language
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meanings, words, phrases, sentences
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phonemes
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smallest speech units that can be distinguished perceptually (unit of sound)
t, th, k, and b about 100 possible, but in english about 40 |
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morphemes
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can group together to form words.
PAST prefixes: un- & pre- BEFORE or PRIORsuffixes: -ed & -ing |
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syntax
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system of rules that governs how we combine words to from meaningful phrases and sentences.
The meaning of sentence is determined by its order. EX: Sally hit the car. The car hit Sally. |
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semantics
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describes how we assign meaning to morphemes, words, phrases, and sentences.
THE CONTENT OF LANGUAGE |
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surface structure
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particular words and phrases
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deep structure
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underlying meaning
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Can the same deep structure be conveyed by different surface structures?
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yes: The ocean is unusually calm tonight. Tonight the ocean is particularly calm.
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Can the same surface structure convey different meanings or Deep structure?
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yes, but knowledge of language permits one to know what is meant within a given context.
EX: The chicken is ready to eat. |
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process of language development
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-largest amount of development in first 4-5 years
-refinement continues during school years -knowledge of grammar & semantics continues to grow into adulthood |
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Milestones: 3 months
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distinguish phonemes from all languages (dissapears between 4 and 12 months)
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Milestones: 4 to 6 months
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babbling sounds begin to resemble surrounding language.
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Milestones: 7 months
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begin to show an understanding of pragmatics, taking turns babbling with a partner
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Milestones: 8 months
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first signs of understanding meaning of words
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Milestones: 1 year
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first words, similar cross culturallly-words for parents
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Milestones: 18-24 months
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vocab spurt. fast mapping, overextension, underextension
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fast mapping
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map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure
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overextension
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child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions
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underextension
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child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of object or actions then it is meant.
EX: using the word DOLL to describe a fav doll dog in park |
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Milestones: End of 2nd year
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combines words to produce meaningful sentences
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telegraphic speech
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consisting mainly of content words, with articles, prepositions, and other less critical words omitted,
"Give Doll." "Go Car." |
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Milestones: End of 3rd year
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complex ideas, plural, past tense
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overregularization
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generalizing grammatical rules incorrectly to irregular cases where they do not apply.
"he goes home" "i goed hidin" |
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first grade
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10,000 words
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fifth grade
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40,000 words
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bilingualism
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the acquisition of two languages that use different specch sounds, vocabulary, and grammatical rules
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critcal period
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age range during which something must occur for normal development.
until about puberty |
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sensitive period
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optimal range for certain experiences, but still possible if missed
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can animals develop language?
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no, lack vocal apparatus to actually speak. teach them ASL
Allen and Beatrice Gardner: Chimp--actually would physically move his hands to make signs, for like milk Sue Savage: Chimp Kanzi--trained to use geometric symbols that represent words on a computer monitored keyboard |
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studies with chimps:
CONCLUSIONS |
-chimps do not learn spontaneously name and point at objects as human children do.
-chimps do not have the ability to be generative(form new words, sentences, and ideas) -controversial: it seems that chimps can communicate but do not have a language |
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Behavorist Theory
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skinner: learn language through imitation, reinforcement, and conditioning
ex. "waer"-->"wadder"-->"water" |
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Language Acquisition Device:
LAD |
Chomsky. innate biological mechanism that holds grammatical rules for all languages. Biologically prepared to speak
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Interactionist Theory:
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biology and experience BOTH make contributions to the development of language
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linguistic relativity
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one's language determine's the nature of one's thoughts.
LANGUAGE LIKELY INFLUENCES RATHER THAN DETERMINES THOUGHTS |
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problem solving
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our active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable
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3 basic classes of problem solving
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Greeno (1978) structure, arrangement, transformation
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Problems of Inducing Structure
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people are required to discover relations among numbers, words, symbols, or ideas.
Series completion and analogies |
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Problems of Arrangement
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arrange the parts of a problem in way that satisfies some criterion. often solved by insight
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Problems of Transformation
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carrying out a sequence of transformation in order to reach a specific goal
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irrelevant information
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often assuming all numerical information is necessary
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effective problem solving
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figure out what information is relevant and what is not
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functional fixedness
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perceive any item only in terms of its most common use
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mental set
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persistance in using problem solving strategies that have worked in the past
Ex: Not studying much in college if you did good in high school. |
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unecessary constraints
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assuming constraints exist, when in fact they do not
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trial and error
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after you try, and fail 10 times, you keep going until you get the right answer
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algorithm
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methodical, step-by-step procedure. automatically generate a correct solution (ALWAYS RIGHT ANSWER) but really long and vigorous in order to find the correct answer (mathematical formulas)
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heuristic
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a guiding principle or shortcut to answer (a lot of room for error) "rule of thumb"
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forming subgoals
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intermediate steps to a solution
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working backwards
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problem with specified end point (maze, working backwards)
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searching for analogies
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using solution to a previous problem to solve a current one
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changing the representation of a problem
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verbally, mathematically, spatially, illustration. strip away irrelevant deatils and represent problems more efficiently
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concept
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a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
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prototype
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mental image or best example of a category
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availability heuristic
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basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event
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Gambler's Fallacy
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beleif that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently
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overestimating the improabable
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people tend to greatly overestimate the likelihood of dramatic, vivid, but infrequent, events that receive heavy media coverage
Ex: heavy media coverages |
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confirmation bias
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tendency to search for information that conforms one's perceptions.
Why: embarrassment and the use in everyday life |
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belief bias
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the tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning.
Ex. easy to accept conclusions that are consistent with out beliefs |
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belief perserverance
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clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been dicredited.
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overconfidence effect
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tendency to be more confident than correct. overestimate the accuracy of one's belies and judgements
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framing
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how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements
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motivation
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the process that influences the direction, persistence, and energy of goal-directed behavior
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DRIVE Theory
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arises from a disruption of homeostasis.
EX: food deprivation-hunger(drive)- seeking food and eating- drive reduction |
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EVOLUTIONARY Theory
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behavior provides reproductive or survival advantage.
dominances, affiliation,aggression->adaptive value |
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Expectancy X Value Theory
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goal directed behavior is determined by: expectancy- strength of the person's expecation that particular behaviors will lead to a goal.
value- the incentive that an individual places on that goal. Motivation = expectancy x incentive value |
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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:
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key human motive: strive for personal growth.
need hierarchy: deficiency, and growth needs ex. sims game |
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intrinsic motivation
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motivated to do an act for its own sake. motivation or desire coming from within, not based on enviromental factors.
INTRINSIC=INTERNAL |
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extrinsic motivation
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behaviors based on reinforcements and punishments. motivation based on external factors
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metabolism
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body's base rate of energy expenditure
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set point
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"weight thermonstat" when the body falls below this weight an increase in hunger and lowered metabolism
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glucostatic theory explaining the causes of hunger
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glucose: form of sugar that circulates in the blood provides the major source of energy for body tissues.
insulin: must be present for cells to use blood gluclose |
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signals that end a meal
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stomach and intestinal distention
CCK and other peptides released by small intestine into bloodstream |
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The Role of Leptin
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Leptin: hormone secreted by fat cells. signal the hypothalamus-->decreases appetite when fat stores are high-->increases expenditure
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evidence for role of leptin in mice
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gene called the ob gene.
produce leptin mouse with ob gene lacks leptin ob mouse- daily injections of leptin reduce mouse's appetite and thus become thinner |
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social pressures and mass media
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restricting calories and dieting. college women overestimated how thin they needed to be to look good to men, and men overestimated how bulky they needed to be to look good in women's eyes.
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obesity
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weight exceeds their ideal body weight by 20%. increases risk of various health problems. BMI: a measure of weight status, taking height into account. correlates with fat
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genetic factors of obesity
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genetic predisposition. account for 61% of the variation in body weight among men and women
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enviromental factors of obesity
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-inexpensive, tasty foods high in fat and/or carbohydrates.
-"supersizing" due to cultural value of getting best value -decreased daily activity due to technological advances |
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eating disorders
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anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, muscle dysmorphia
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why people engage in sex
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reproduce, obtain and give pleasure, express love, foster intimacy, conform to peer pressure
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hormone regulation
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estrogens,androgens testosterone
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pheromones
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synchronized menstrual cycles
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social psychology
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the scientific study of how people think about, interacts with, influences others.
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what do social psychologists study?
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group behavior, social norms and conformity
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person perception
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forming impressions of others.
-effects of physical appearance -cognitive schemas -stereotypes subjectivity in person perception -evolutionary perspectives |
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first impressions
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-attach more meaning to initial information learned about a person
-initial info shapes how we percieve subsequent info -influence further contact with that person |
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metal set
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our readiness to perceive things in a certain way
Ex. george = quiet (friend says snob vs. shy) |
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effects of physical appearance
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attribute desirable characteristics such as sociable, friendly, poise, warm, competent, and well adjusted to thos who are good looking
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schemas
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-mental frameworks that help us organize and interpret information
-create our mental sets |
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stereotypes
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generalized belief about a group of people
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spotlight effect
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tendency to assume that the social spotlight shines more brightly on them than it actually does
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illusion of asymmetric insight
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tendency to think that one's knowledge of one's peers is greater than the peer knowledge of oneself
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self fulfilling prophecy
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we have an expectation about someone, that expectation dictates how we act towards them, our behavior causes them to act in a way we expected, unconcious and circular
George--snob--i am rude--george rude to me--george is a snob! |
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physical attractiveness: preference in feminized faces
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large eyes, small nose, sexually mature, narrow face
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proximity
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the closer people are to one another, the more likely they will become attracted to each other
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matching effect
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males and females of approximately equal physical attractiveness are likely to select each other as partners
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similarity
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we search for similar individuals, "birds of a feather, flock together"
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attitudes
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feelings about beliefs about other people, ideas, of objects. based on a person's past experiences, long lasting
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3 components of attitudes
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cognitive, affective, behavioral, affective
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Learning Theory
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attitudes orginate and are shaped through learning and conditioning
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classical conditioning
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reinforced by other's agreement
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observational learning
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other's attitudes influence your attitudes
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cognitive dissonance
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unpleasant state of tension that occurs when cognitions and behavior are inconsistent or contradictory.
EASIER TO CHANGE A BELIEF THAN A BEHAVIOR. ACT IN A WAY THAT OUR BELEIFS DO NOT CONTRADICT OUR ACTIONS |
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self perception
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people infer attitudes from their behavior. observe how acted and infer how you must have felt
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attributions
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percieving causes of behavior. judgements about the causes of our own and of other's behaviors
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fundamental attribution bias
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underestimate role of personal factors
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self-serving bias
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make personal attributions for success and make situational attributions for failures
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defensive attribution
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the tendency to blame victims for their misfortune, so that one feels likely to be victimized in a similar way.
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obediance
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a form of compliance that occurs when people who follow direct commands usually from someone in a position of authority
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milgram's obedience
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wanted to understand the Holocaust and why ordinary citizens obeyed order from authority figures even iff it meant physical harm
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Asch Conformity Exp.
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students had several trials of matching the target line. However, only one member of the group was a participant. How many do you think went with the group and knowingly gave the wrong answer? 37%
Why did they conform to the confederate when it was obvious they would give the wrong answer? To avoid making waves and suffering possible rejection. |
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bystander effect
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tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystander are present
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social compensation
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working harder in a group then when alone. compensating for other's lower output, if goal is high desireable
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social loafing
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expend less individual effort when in a group, more likely when individuals not being mentioned. If a person is poorly motivated and expects others will work hard
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group behavior
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ther "average" opinion of the group tends to become more extreme
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group think
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tendency for group members to suspend critical thinking, trying to come to agreement
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deindividuation
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a loss of individuality that leads to disinhibted behavior
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door-in-the-face technique
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a large request is followed by a small request, the persuader has compromised, our rejection of large request may cause us to feel guilt-->accept small second request
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