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160 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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cognitive features of economic distortions done by casinos |
- casino chips/credit instead of using money prevents people from making "money plays" (easier to bet a chip than 100$ bill) |
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Kusyszyn gambling quote |
during gambling, money loses its economic value |
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Gambler's fallacy |
information from previous independent events can influence future outcomes |
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What type of conditioning do supersitions induce? |
- coincidental conditioning - People want to have some kind of control |
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Biased perceptions of gamblers |
- Tend to be proud of their wins, but understate their losses and attribute them to bad luck |
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Chasing losses |
- the downside to optimism, thinking "it must get better", trying to regain lost money |
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Near miss effect |
- Almost winning induces cognitive regret - gamble more money after a near miss - same areas of brain activated as during a win |
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How is dopamine activity different in pathological gamblers? |
- released before the outcome of the gambling has occured, not just during the win - feel pleasure just from gambling itself |
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Factors contributing to recreational alcohol consumption |
- Conditioning: personal experiences prior to and during intoxication are enjoyable - Expectations based on person experiences, other's experiences, and environmental influences - Memory: we remember early positive effects |
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Duka study on alcohol |
- subjects given alcohol more likely to consume alcohol - people who think alcohol makes them more sociable are more likely to drink it |
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What does alcohol do to memory? |
- increases memory prior to drinking and in the early stages of drinking (mostly emotional memories) - Memory decreases after drinking, and retains mostly emotional memories |
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Biphasic effects of alcohol |
- Euphoria --> dyphoria |
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What parts of the brain & functions does alcohol effect |
- the PFC: working memory, higher-level thinking, risk-taking - decreases cognitive function: planning, organization, self and social monitoring - impairs motor performance |
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3 cognitive distortions of gambling |
- near misses - illusory control - gambler's fallacy |
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Characteristics of operant conditioning in gambling |
- Positive reinforcement: Money, excitement - Negative reinforcement: reduces stress & boredom - Variabl ration/random ratio payoff schedule |
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What areas of the brain does gambling activate |
- Pre-frontal cortex (PFC) - Pleasure center (increased dopamine) - Visual area |
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Mixed results for alcohol's effect on gambling |
- some reports: alcohol impairs control over behaviour - some reports: alcohol affects risk betting and amount of money lost - in regular gambling, gambling was associated with greater alcohol consumption |
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Characteristics of non-human primate language |
- Species-specific vocal calls - Some symbolic vocalization: Calls that mean something - Have different calls correspond to 3 different predators - Not arbitrary: symbols sound like the actual predators |
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3 unique characteristics of human language |
- Symbolism: using an arbitrary pairing to represent something unrelated (sometimes not arbitrary = onomatopoiea) - Generativity: ability to create new ideas by creating a new string of words that can be understood by your species - Recursion: The ability to combine multiple ideas from different times and places into one |
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Phonemes |
- Smallest sounds of human language that can be identified as speech and not just random noise (Ah, T) |
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Phenomic inventory |
- all of the phonemes a language uses - each of the world's languages has a unique set/combination of phonemes - difficult to hear the difference & produce phonemes not in your language |
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Phonological rules |
set of rules that indicates how phonemes can be combined to produce speech sounds |
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Morphemes |
smallest unit the has language - not necessarily a word (ing, s, ed) |
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How many phonemes minimum do you need to make a morpheme? |
1 (eg. A, -s) |
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Morphological rules |
- a set of rules that indicates how morphemes can be combined to form words |
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Semantics |
words and word meaning |
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Syntax |
- sentence & sentence structure (grammar) - rules for combining words into utterances |
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Which syntactical rules tend to differ across languages? Which tend to be the same across languages? |
- Differ: word order - Same: the presence of verbs and nouns |
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Deep structure Surface structure |
- Deep: the meaning of a sentence - Surface: How a sentence is worded |
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Pragmatics |
- What things mean in context - Can change the meanings of language by external means: tone, body language, context |
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Metalinguistics |
our ability to talk about language using language |
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What is phonological development & when does it start? |
- Start learning the phonemes of their native language (learning sounds, not producing) - Before birth (20 wks after conception) |
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What is perceptual narrowing and when does it occur? |
- Differentiating (perceiving) sounds of native language - When born, can differentiate between sounds of all languages - Narrowing: focusing on sounds of native language - Finishes around 10 months |
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Different stages and ages of learning to produce sounds of their native language |
- Cooing (0-4 months) - Babbling (syllabic speech) + hand-babbling in sign language: (4-6 months) - Words (10-15 months) |
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What is semantic development, when does it occur, and when is it really efficient |
- Understanding what words in their native language mean - Birth --> Whole lifespan - Very fast 10 months - school ages |
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What is speech segmentation? When is it fastest? |
- Identifying individual words from a slur of connected words without knowing any of the words before hand - Babies are much better at this |
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Until can babies mostly understand nouns? |
- 18-24 months |
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What allows children to learn language at such a fast pace? |
- Fast mapping: children can map a word onto an underlying concept after only a single exposure |
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Telegraphic speech |
- speech that is devoid of morphemes, consists mostly of content words: - "more mik," "throw ball" |
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Quinean reference problem |
- When a baby or non-native speaker is trying to learn a new language, how do they know which object a word refers to? |
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Fixes to the Quinean reference problem |
- Whole object bias - Mutual exclusivity - Basic level bias - Linguistic context - Pragmatic ques |
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explain basic-level biased |
- biased to assume we are talking about the basic level of an object (rabbit), not the superordinate broader term (mammals) or the subordinate specific term (arctic hare) |
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Explain linguistic context that helps babies overcome the quinean reference problem |
- Very sensitive to the way nounds/verbs/adjectives sound - Grammatical ques (eg. "a" behind a noun") - Syntactic ques: what order the workds come in |
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What are pragmactic cues |
- External influences on language that help solve quineane reference problem - infant-directed speech - change tone/duration/spaces between words - pointing |
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Behaviourist account of how children learn language |
- Learn language through reinforcement/punishment from their caregivers |
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Problem with the behaviourist account of language aquisition |
- for this to be true, parents must have punished/praised everytime, to avoid extinction - not the case, and children still develop language |
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Nativist account of language development, who supported it, and what did he discover? |
- Language is an innate, biological capability - Chomsky discovered the Language Aquisition Device (LAD) in the brain: a collection of processes that facilitates language development |
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Support for the nativist account of language development |
- Universal grammar: All the world's languages have verbs and nouns, and similarities in how they relate to each other - All normally-developing children develop language |
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Language centers of the brain and what happens when they are damaged |
- Damage to whole thing: Aphasia: difficulty producing or comprehending language - Brocus area: damaged people have hard time producing sentences - Wernicke's area: damaged people can produce sentences but they tend not to make sense |
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Genetic dysphasia |
- inability to learn grammatical structure of language despite otherwise normal intelligence |
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Problem with the nativist account of language development |
- all kids develop language in very different ways, which is heavily influenced by how the child is raised --> must be some nature and some nurture |
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Constructivist account of language development & support |
- Children learn language the same way they learn everything else, by observing people using language and building up the components piece-by-piece - slowly constructed through experience - Support: can teach computers language through repetitive input p |
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Problems with the constructivist account of language development |
- computers can't learn generativity and generating arbitrary symbols - there is evidence that there is something special about human language that can't just be learned through repetition |
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Interactionist account of language development |
- some initial bias to learn language at birth - intial bias is elaborated by experience - social communication drives language development |
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code switching
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- when bilinguals can change languages in the middle of the sentence |
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Vocabulary differences in bilinguals vs. monolingual |
- Early on: Bilingual (A + B) has lower vocab in A than monolingual (A) but higher overall vocab (A+B > A) - Teen years: Bilingual has higher vocab in A than monolingual |
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How does bilingualism alter brain strucure? |
- Learning a second language early in life increases the density of grey matter in the brain - As proficiency for second language increases, so does grey matter - The differences are in the same area that is activated during verbal fluency tests |
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gaze selection |
- choosing where to look in a scene - normally like to focus on the eyes --> aids in face recognition |
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What specific features of the eyes play a role in gaze direction and social integration? |
- We are good at determining the gaze direction of someone else because of the high contrast between sclera and pupil - more socially integrate species have higher contrast between sclera and the pupil |
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Gaze following |
-orienting attention in the direction of someone else'sgaze - allows people to look at the same thing at the same time |
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Explain the gaze following/object identification experiment |
- Subject shown 3 pictures of a person & an object: - Valid trial: person looking at object - Invalid trial: looking away from object - Neutral trial: looking directly at you - Object identification was fastest in the valid trial, slowest in the neutral trial |
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Joint attention |
- When you look at same thing the teacher is looking at, it helps you link words to objects
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what does an infant's ability to gaze follow indicate? |
- predicts how fast their vocabulary will develop |
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What is autism characterized by |
- deficit in social interaction, community, and ability to verbalize - repetitive behaviour - difficulty making eye contact |
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Gaze selection in autistic children |
- most likely to focus on the mouth, not the eyes, because it is moving the most so is the most perceptually interesting |
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How are autistic children affected by face recognition using direct or indirect gaze? |
- No more efficient at recognizing faces when using direct gaze |
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Do children with autism follow gaze? |
- Yes, but not for joint attention - Don't look at the object of the gaze - Follow the head movement |
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William's Syndrome |
- Hypersensitive to social cues - cognitive impairments - almost exclusively focus on the eyes, hardly look around anywhere in their environment |
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consciousness |
a person's subjective experience of the world and the mind |
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Phenomenology |
how things seem to a conscious person |
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2 dimensions of mind perception |
1) Capacity for experience (feel pain/pleasure) 2) Capacity for agency (ability to plan or exert self control) |
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Mind-body problem |
- the issue of how the mind is related to the brain and body |
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Dichotic listening task |
- people wearing headphones heard different messages presented to each ear - shows that the brian can tune-out some information, while tuning into some others |
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Cocktail party phenomenom |
- people tune into one message while filtering out others nearby |
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What is daydreaming and what part of the brain does is activate? |
- A state of consciousness in which a seemingly purposeless flow of thoughts comes to mind - widespread activation of the default network of the brain |
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Thought suppression |
- the conscious avoidance of thought (exerting mental control) |
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Rebound effect of thought suppression |
- the tendency of a thought to return to consciousness with greater frequency following suppression |
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Ironic processes of mental control |
- monitoring for mental errors can itself produce errors |
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Levels of consciousness (3) |
- Minimal consciousness: Low-level sensory awareness & responsiveness: mind inputs sensations and may output behaviour - Full consciousness: You know and are able to report your mental state - Self-consciousness: Your attention is drawn to your self as an object |
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What is the dynamic unconscious & who described it |
- Freud: an active system encompassing a lifetime of hidden memories, deep instincts and desires, and inner struggle |
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What (according to Freud) keeps the unconscious in check? |
- Repression: a mental process that removes unacceptable thoughts and memories from consciousness and keeps them in the unconscious |
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Cognitive unconscious |
all the mental processes that give rise to a person's thoughts, choices, emotions, and behaviour even though they aren't experienced by the person |
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Subliminal perception |
- thought or behaviour that is influenced by stimuli the person can't consciously report perceiving |
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Who demonstrated that each half of the motor cortex controls the opposite half of the body? |
Wilder penfield |
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Where is language localized in the brain? |
- 95% of right handed people: in the left hemishpere - Left handed people: on either side |
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In relation to an object made up of smaller parts, which side of the brain cares about what? |
- Left: parts of the object - Right: Whole obejct |
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Which half of the brain is more important for face recognition & why? Damage to what side causes propopagnosia> |
- Right side b/c we perceive faces as wholes, and right side cares about the whole object - Propopagnosia is associated with right-brain damage |
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Damage to left/right hemisphere causes deficit in what types of learning? |
- Left damage: issues with verbal learning - Right damage: issues with visual learning |
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Agenesis of the corpus callosum & causes |
- Corpus callosum never developed - fetal alcohol syndrome: disrupts neural migration during fetal development - Genetic mutation |
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describe process of neural migration |
- Neural development starts 10wks after conception - Originally a central area where all new neurons are created - migrate to the place they are supposed to be |
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Is agenesis or removal of the corpus callosum more damaging? |
- Agenesis b/c agenesis is important for brain developement in children, brain can't properly develop w/o it |
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Corpus collosum: Where does motor information, visual info, and higher-thinking processes cross? |
- Motor & higher-thinking: front - Visual & sensation: back |
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Tapistotopic presentation |
- quickly presenting information to only half of the brain |
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Left-brain interpreter |
The part of the brain (left) that wants to provide a justification for things, even if they aren't reasonable |
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What happens when you present an object in the left visual field to a person with a partial corpus callosum split & ask them to say what they saw? |
- Left side of space presented to the right hemisphere --> needs to pass to language center in the left hemisphere - Left hemisphere gets clues about what it is, may see it/the scene, eventually the left brain uses the verbal clues to figure it out |
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What happens when you present an object in the left visual field to a person with a full corpus callosum split & ask them to say what they saw? |
- Will see they saw nothing because the information in the right hemisphere can't pass to the verbal center in the left hemisphere |
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Which half of the brain is better at spatial functions? |
Right brain |
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What happens with post-callostomy spatial performance? |
- performance on spatial tasks is better with the left hand (controlled by the right brain) |
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What hand is usually the alien hands following callostomy? Why? |
- left hand - the left hemisphere is very important in being conscious of what you are doing - right hemisphere (controls left hand) doesn't get information or send information to allow you to be aware of what you are doing |
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What part of the brain is associated with the ability to demonstrate how to use a tool? |
left parietal lobe |
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where does motoric knowledge start |
left parietal cortex |
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what can damage to the left parietal lobe cause? |
- you can describe how to use a tool, but have difficulty motorically demonstrating how to use it - may result in an inability to imitate hand gestures or pantomine tool use with either hand |
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Left ideomotor apraxia |
- inability to show how to use a tool with the left hand b/c the right brain controls the left hand, but motoric knowledge begins in the left brain - occurs after a corpus callostomy |
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cognitive functions localized to the left brain |
- language - perceives parts of a whole - verbal learning - left-brain interpreter - being conscious of what we are doing - motoric knowledge of how to use a tool |
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cognitive functions localized to the right brain |
- perceives whole objects - face recognition - visual learning - spatial functioning |
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concept |
a mental representation that groups or categorizes shared features of related objects, events, and other stimuli |
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Family resemblance theory |
- members of a category have features that appear to be characteristic of category members but may not be possessed by every member |
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Prototype |
the best or most typical member of a category |
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Exemplar theory |
a theory of categorization that argues that we make category judgements by comparing a new instance with stored memories for other instances of the category |
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prototype theory vs. exemplar theory |
- Prototype theory: we classify new objects by comparing to a prototype - exemplar theory: we classify objects by comparing them to all category members |
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category-specific deficit |
- a neurological syndrome that is characterized by an inability to recognize objects that belong to a particular category, although the ability to recognize objects outside the category is undisturbed |
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rational choice theory |
- the classical view that we make decisions by determining how likely something is to happen, judging the value of the outcome, then multiplying the two |
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availability bias |
- items that are more readily available in memory are judged as having occured more frequently |
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heuristic |
- a fast and efficient strategy that may facilitate decision making but does not gaurantee that a solution will be reached |
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algorithm |
a well-defined sequence of procedures or rules that gaurantees a solution to a problem |
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conjunction fallacy |
when people think that two events are more lkely to occur together than either individual event |
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representativeness heuristic |
a mental shortcut that involves making a probability judgement by comparing an object or event to a prototype of the object or event |
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framing effects |
when people give different answers to the same problem depending on how the problem is phrased p |
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prospect theory |
people choose to take on risk when evaluating potential losses, and avoid risks when evaluating potential gains |
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frequency format hypothesis |
the proposal that our minds evolved to notice how frequently things occur, not how likely they are to occur |
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damage to what part of the brain can cause more risky behaviour |
prefrontal cortex |
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means-ends analysis |
a process of searching for the means or steps to reduce differences between the current situation and the desired goal (problem solving) |
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analogical problem solving |
solving a problem by finding a similar problem w. a known solution and applying that solution to the current problem |
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functional fixedness |
the tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed |
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reasoning |
a mental activity that consists of organizing information or beliefs into a series of steps in order to reach a conclusion |
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practical reasoning |
figuring out what to do, or reasoning directed towards action |
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theoretical reasoning (aka discursive reasoning) |
reasoning directed toward arriving at a belief b |
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belief bias |
people's judgements about whether to accept conclusions depend on how believeable the conclusions are than on whether the arguments are logically valid |
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syllogistic reasonning |
determining whether a conclusions follows from two statements that are assumed to be true |
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Types of sleep waves: - Awake, drowsy, state 1, 2, 3/4, REM |
- Awake: Beta: high frequency - Drowsy: Alpha - Stage 1: Theta - State 2: Sleep spindles & K-complexes - Stage 3/4: Delta (long, low freq) - REM: sawtooth: random, fast |
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what does an EEG measure? EOG? |
- EEG: brain waves - EOG: eye movements |
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characteristics of stage 1 sleep |
- Hypnogogic jerks - if someone wakes you up, claim you weren't asleep - Theta waves |
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characteristics of stage 2 sleep |
- K complexes (high waves) and sleep spindles - sleep spindles supress wakefulness - not too bad to be woken up |
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characteristics of stage 3/4 sleep |
- delta waves (slow, high amplitude) - release of growth hormones & restorative effects - bad to be woken up |
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difference between stage 3 & 4 sleep |
- 3: <50% delta waves - 4: >50% delta waves |
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characteristics of REM sleep |
- high frequency sawtooth waves - darting eye movements - increased heart & breathing rates - when dreams occur - important for memory consolidation n |
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neumonic for stages of sleep waved |
BAT(k/spindles)D |
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functions of sleep |
- body regulation (temperature) - attention & performance - learning & memory - emotional regulation |
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why are emotions more intense in sleep-deprived people? |
- amygdala is more active, because the areas that help control the amygdala are less active |
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insomnia |
difficulty going to or staying asleep |
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sleep apnea |
person temporarily stops breathing, waking them up - strong correlation with obesity |
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narcoleps |
- suddenly & dramatically fall asleep - conscious control of going to sleep is reduced |
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kleine-levin syndrome (KLS) |
people who need 19-20 hours a day of sleep |
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sommambulism |
sleepwalking --> higher level of consciousness |
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sleep paralysis |
the experience of waking up unable to move |
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night terrors |
abrupt wakenings with panic and intense emotional arousal |
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5 major characteristics of dreams |
- intense emotion - illogical thought - vividness - uncritical acceptance - difficulty remembering l |
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lucid dreaming |
being aware that you are dreaming --> different level of consciousness |
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what did freud say about the meaning of dreams? |
- dreams are the playground of the mind, explore inappropriate thoughts that we can't share in society - a dreams manifest content is a smokescreen for its latent content
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Activation synthesis model of dreams |
- dreams don't have meaning - they are generated by your brain trying to make sense of random neuron activity |
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how are dreams linked to memory consolidation?- |
- In REM sleep, you are both dreaming & doing memory consildation - when you 'open the file cabinet' to store new dreams, old memories can be activated and influence your dreams |
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psychoactive drugs |
chemicals that influence consciousness or behaviour by altering the brain's chemical message system |
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depressants |
reduce activity of CNS |
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expectancy theory |
alcohol effects can be produced by people's expectations of how alcohol will influence them in particular situations |
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alcohol myopia |
- when alcohol hampers attention, leading people to respond in simple ways to complex problems (fine judgement is impaired) |
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stimulants |
activate the CNS |
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hypnosis |
a hypnotis makes suggestions that lead to a change in the subject's subjective experience of the world |
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posthypnotic amnesia |
failure to retrieve memories following hypnotic suggestions to forget |
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hypnoticanalgesia |
the reduction of pain through hypnosis |
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throughout the night, what happens to sleep patterns? |
- REM gets more frequent - deep sleep gets less frequent |
