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196 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
social psychology
+study of how people influence others' behavior, beliefs, and attitudes
social facilitation
the presence of others can enhance one's performance in certain situations

+depends on expertise/knowledge of person
+depends on ease of task
social disruption
presence of others can worsen one's behavior on a certain task

+task is usually difficult
+person has little/no knowledge, expertise
need to belong theory
humans have a biologically based need for interpersonal connections
Evolutionary Perspective on Social Behavior
Conformity, obedience, and many other forms of social influence become maladaptive only when they're blind or unquestioning.
attributions
assigning internal/external causes to behavior
fundamental attribution error
tendency to overestimate impact of dispositional influences on someone else's behavior
dispositional influence
enduring characteristics
+personality traits
+attitudes
+intelligence
social comparison theory
evaluate our beliefs, abilities, and reactions by comparing them with those of others
mass hysteria
contagious outbreak of irrational behavior that spreads like the flu

+outbreak of crazy
collective delusions
many people simultaneously become convinced that bizarre things are true

+for example, Godzilla is real
urban legends
false stories repeated so many times that everyone now thinks they're true
conformity
tendency of people to alter their behavior as a result of group pressure

+activates the amygdala and the occipital and parietal lobes
parametric studies
investigators systematically manipulate the independent variable in various ways to determine how it affects the dependent variable
deindividuation
tendency of people to engage in atypical behavior when stripped of their usual identities

+more vulnerable to social influences
+caused by feeling of anonymity and a lack of individual responsibility
Mob Psychology
Crowds are NOT always more aggressive than individuals
--depends on people within the crowd

+people in crowds usually limit social interactions to minimize conflict
groupthink
emphasis on group unanimity at the expense of critical thinking

--Bay of Pigs
--NASA Challenger
group polarization
group discussion strengthens dominant positions held by individual group members

--can be helpful in a timely pinch
--mostly destructive
cults
groups of individuals who exhibit intense and unquestioning devotion to a single cause

+Promote groupthink in four major ways
1)having a persuasive/charismatic leader who fosters loyalty
2)disconnecting group members from the outside world
3) discouraging questioning of the leader's assumptions
4)establishing training practices that gradually indoctrinate members
inoculation effect
for an undesirable belief, gently introduce reasons as to why this belief seems correct, then refute those reasons
obedience
take orders from those higher up in the hierarchy than we are
prosocial behavior
behavior intended to help others
pluralistic ignorance
error of assuming that no one in the group perceives things as we do
diffusion of responsibility
presence of others makes each person feel less responsible for the outcome
social loafing
phenomenon in which people slack off in groups
altruism
helping others for unselfish reasons
enlightenment effect
learning about psychological research can change real world behavior for the better
aggression
behavior intended to harm others, either verbally or physically
relational aggression
form of indirect aggression marked by spreading rumors, gossiping, social exclusion, and nonverbal putdowns
belief
conclusion regarding factual evidence
attitude
belief that includes an emotional component
self-monitoring
trait that assesses the extent to which people's behaviors reflect their true feelings and attitudes
recognition heuristic
makes us more likely to believe something we've heard many times
maladaptive gullibility
falling for messages delivered by phony authority figures
implicit egotism
more positively disposed to people like us
cognitive dissonance
unpleasant state of tension due to two or more conflicting thoughts/cognitions
self-perception theory
we acquire our attitudes by observing our behaviors
impression management theory
we don't really change our attitudes in cognitive dissonance studies
we only tell experimenters that we have
foot-in-door technique
start with a small request before making a bigger one
door-in-face technique
initial request is large, then lower it to a smaller request to induce guilt
low-ball technique
seller beings by quoting a price well below the actual sales price, then mentions "add-ons" so the buyer winds up paying more than the actual price
prejudice
prejudge before we've received all the evidence
adaptive conservatism
forge alliances with insiders while mistrusting outsiders
in-group bias
tendency to favor individuals inside our group relative to those outside of it
out-group homogeneity
tendency to view all people outside of our group as highly similar
discrimination
act of treating members of out-groups differently from members of in-groups
stereotype
positive or negative belief about a group's characteristics that we apply to most members of the group
ultimate attribution error
mistake of attributing the behavior of entire groups to their dispositions
scapegoat hypothesis
prejudice arises from a need to blame other groups for our misfortunes
just-world hypothesis
implies that many of us have a deep-seated need to see the world as fair
jigsaw classrooms
teachers assign children separate tasks that all need to be fitted together to complete a project
traits
relatively enduring predispositions that influence our behavior across many situations
nomothetic approach
understand personality by identifying general laws that govern the behavior of all individuals
idiographic approach
understand personality by identifying the unique configuration of characteristics and life history experiences within a person
somatogenic
physiologically caused
catharsis
feeling of relief following a dramatic outpouring of emotion
psychic determinism
the assumption that all psychological events have a cause
id
consists of our most primitive impulses
contains a variety of drives
operates by the pleasure principle
pleasure principle
immediate gratification of whatever it desires
ego
controls personality
tasked with interacting with the real world
--finding ways to resolve the competing demands of the id and the superego
governed by the reality principle
reality principle
strives to delay gratification until it can find an appropriate outlet
superego
sense of morality
contains sense of right and wrong
defense mechanisms
unconscious maneuvers intended to minimize anxiety
essential for psychological health
repression
motivated forgetting of emotionally threatening memories or impulses

INTERNAL
denial
motivated forgetting of distressing
EXTERNAL experiences
regression
act of psychologically returning to a younger age
reaction-formation
transformation of an anxiety-provoking emotion into its opposite

EXAMPLE
married worker is sexually attracted to her coworker but finds him repulsive
projection
unconscious attribution of our negative characteristics to others
displacement
transferring our impulse from a socially unacceptable target onto a safer and more acceptable one
rationalization
provides a reasonable-sounding explanation for our unreasonable actions or behaviors
intellectualization
avoid emotions and focus on impersonal thoughts and facts

EXAMPLE
newly divorced man cites divorce rates
identification with aggressor
process of adopting characteristics of individuals we find threatening
sublimation
transforms socially unacceptable impulse into a socially beneficial one

EXAMPLE
bully becomes a boxer
erogenous zone
sexually arousing zone of the body
oral stage
mouth-oriented
infants obtain sexual pleasure via sucking and drinking
anal stage
represents psychological conflict
children want to alleviate tension and experience pleasure by relieving their bowels
--they can't do this whenever they want, so they must learn to inhibit urges

--can lead to anal personalities
phallic stage
children develop a strong opposite sex attraction to their parent
Oedipus Complex
young boy wants mom all for himself and hates his dad
--faced with fear of castration and attainment impossibilities

--then identifies with his dad and no longer loves his mother
Electra Complex
same thing as the Oedipus complex but with girls and their dads
penis envy
girls desire to possess a penis

--feelings of inferiority due to lack of penis

--stupid
latency stage
period of calm
the opposite sex is gross
sexual impulses submerged to the unconscious
genital stage
sexual impulses reawaken
emergence of mature romantic relationships
neo-Freudian theories
emphasize unconscious influences in behavior
emphasize the importance of early experience in shaping personality
more optimistic concerning prospects for personality growth through a lifetime

LESS emphasis on sexuality as a driving personality force
style of life
longstanding pattern of achieving superiority
inferiority complex
children who were pampered or neglected are prone to low self esteem & tend to overcompensate
collective unconscious
comprises all of the memories that ancestors have passed down to us across generations
archetypes
cross-culturally universal emotional symbols
social learning theorists
emphasize thinking as a cause of personality
radical behaviorists
emphasize all our actions are products of preexisting casual influences
locus of control
extent to which people believe that reinforcers and punishers lie inside or outside their control
actualization
drive to develop our innate potential to the fullest possible extent
Roger's Model of Personality
1)organism is our innate genetic blueprint
2)self is our self-concept
3)conditions of worth emanate from society and we internalize them
conditions of worth
expectations we place on ourselves for appropriate and inappropriate behavior
incongruence
our personalities are inconsistent with our innate selves
peak experiences
transcendent moments of intense excitement and tranquility marked by a profound sense of connection to the world
factor analysis
analyzes correlations among responses on personality inventories and other measures and tries to identify the underlying factors that give rise to these correlations
Big Five
five traits that have surfaced repeatedly in factor analyses of personality measures
lexical approach
most crucial features of human personality are embedded in our language
structured personality tests
questions that a respondent must answer in one of a few fixed ways
MMPI
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
--most extensively researched
empirical method of test construction
researchers take one or two criterion groups and examine which items best distinguish those with and without a psychological disorder
face validity
extent to which respondents can tell what the items are measuring
rational/theoretical method of test construction
requires test developers to begin with a clear-cut conceptualization of a trait and then write items to asses that conceptualization
projective tests
ambiguous stimuli that examiners must interpret or make sense of
projective hypothesis
assumes that in the process of interpreting ambiguous stimuli, people inevitably project aspects of their personality onto the stimulus
Rorschach Inkblot Test
inkblot tests
scientifically controversial
interrater reliabilities are problematic
incremental validity
extent to which a test contributes information we couldn't glean from more efficient measures
Thematic Apperception Test
cards depicting ambiguous interpersonal situations
graphology
psychological interpretation of handwriting
PT Barnum effect
tendency of people to accept high base rate descriptions as accurate
demonic model
Middle Ages
mentally ill viewed as having demons or witchcraft responsible
persecuted, tortured, and killed
medical model
mental illness = physical disorder
mentally ill require medical treatment
asylums
institutions for the mentally ill
moral treatment
mentally ill must be treated with dignity, kindness, and respect
deinstitutionalization
government sanctioned policy that called for the release of all hospitalized psychiatric patients and the closing of mental hospitals
bulimia nervosa
binging and purging
anorexia nervosa
excessive weight loss and irrational perception that they are overweight
labeling theorist
psychiatric diagnoses exert powerful negative effects on people's perceptions and behaviors
prevalence
percentage of people in the population with a disorder
axes
dimensions of functioning
comorbidity
individuals in one diagnosis usually have one or more diagnoses
categorical model
mental disorder is either present or absent
dimensional model
differ from normal functioning by degrees

EXAMPLE
height
insanity defense
shouldn't hold people legally responsible for crimes if they weren't of "sound mind" when they committed them
incompetence to stand trial
inability for defendant to understand charges levied against them and if they cannot consult with their lawyer

based on whether or not defendant possesses adequate mental capacity
involuntary commitment
procedure for placing mentally ill in hospitals in order to protect society and themselves
somatoform disorders
people experience physical symptoms that suggest an underlying medical illness but are of psychological origin
hypochondriasis
one is suffering from some sort of serious physical disease
panic attacks
nervous feelings gather momentum and escalate into intense bouts of fear and terror

last < 10 min
panic disorder
experience panic attacks that are repeated and unexpected
experience consistent concerns about panicking or change their behavior as a result of the attacks
generalized anxiety disorder
tend to think anxious thoughts, feel irritable and on edge, have trouble sleeping, and experience a lot of bodily tension
phobia
intense fear of an object or situation that's greatly out of proportion to its actual threat
agoraphobia
fear of being in a place or situation in which escape is difficult or embarrassing
specific phobia
phobia of objects, places, or situations
social phobia
fear of public appearances in which embarrassment seems unlikely
posttraumatic stress disorder
a person witnesses a physically dangerous or life-threatening event
respond with intense fear, helplessness, or horror
obsessive-compulsive disorder
suffer from obsessions, compulsions, and fear of the obsessions
obsession
persistent ideas, thoughts, or impulses that are unwanted or inappropriate
compulsions
repetitive behaviors or mental acts that they initiate in order to reduce or prevent distress
major depressive episode
person's difficulties center on extremely bleak mood and thoughts of suicide
cognitive model of depression
depression is caused by negative beliefs and expectations
learned helplessness
tendency to feel helpless in the face of events we can't control
manic episode
dramatically elevated mood, decreased need for sleep, greatly heightened energy, inflated self-esteem, increased talkativeness, and irresponsible behavior
bipolar disorder
person has history of at least one manic episode
>50% of the time a major depressive episode occurs after manic episode

most genetically influenced

increased activity in amygdala
decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex
dissociative disorders
disruptions in conscious, memory, identity, or perception
depersonalization disorder
multiple episodes of feeling detached from yourself
dissociative amnesia
inability to recall important information after a stressful experience
dissociative fugue
forget significant part of their lives and flee these stressful circumstances
dissociative identity disorder
presence of two or more distinct personality states or identities that recurrently take control of the person's behavior
schizophrenia
suffer delusions
severe disorder of thought and emotion associated with a loss of contact with reality
levels of functioning plummet
delusions
strongly held beliefs that have no basis in reality
psychotic symptoms
psychological problems reflecting serious distortions in reality
hallucinations
sensory perceptions that occur in the absence of an external stimulus
catatonic symptoms
motor problems
for example
--extreme resistance complying with simple suggestions
--body held in bizarre or rigid postures
--curling up in fetal positions
Schizophrenia Causes
brain tissue deterioration, ventricles expand
--decrease in amygdala and hippocampus activity

--dopamine receptors are flawed

--genetically inherited
Diathesis-stress model
perspective proposing that mental disorders are a joint product of genetic vulnerability (diathesis) and stressors that trigger this vulnerability
personality disorder
personality traits are inflexible, stable, expressed in a wide variety of situations, and lead to distress or impairment

--appears in adolescence
borderline personality disorder
extreme instability in mood, identity, and impulse control
psychopathic personality
superficial charm, dishonesty, manipulativeness, self-centeredness, guiltlessness, and risk-taking
antisocial personality disorder
lengthy history of illegal and/or irresponsible actions
psychotherapy
psychological intervention designed to help people resolve emotional, behavioral, and interpersonal problems and improve the quality of their lives
paraprofessional
person with no professional training who provides mental health services

--as helpful as those with training
insight therapies
psychotherapies with the goal of expanding awareness or insight
free association
patients express themselves without censorship of any sort
psychoanalysis
first therapy ever
Freud
goal: make unconscious conscious
resistance
attempts to avoid confrontation and anxiety associated with uncovering previously repressed thoughts, emotions, and impulses
transference
projecting intense, unrealistic feelings and expectations from the past onto therapist
work through
confront and resolve problems, conflicts, and ineffective coping responses in everyday life
interpersonal therapy
treatment that strengthens social skills and targets interpersonal problems, conflicts, and life transitions
humanistic-existential psychotherapy
therapies that share an emphasis on the development of human potential and the belief that human nature is basically positive
phenomenological approach
therapists encounter patients in terms of the subjective phenomena they experience at the present moment
person-centered therapy
centered on patient's goals and ways of solving problems
Gestalt therapy
aims to integrate different and sometimes opposing aspects of personality into a unified sense of self

uses 2 chair technique
experiental therapies
interventions that recognize the important of awareness, acceptance, and expression of feelings
logotherapy
helps people find meaning in their lives
behavior therapists
focuses on specific problem behaviors, and current variables that maintain problematic thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
systematic desensitization
patients are taught to relax as they are gradually exposed to what they fear, step by step
exposure therapy
confronts patients with what they fear with the goal of reducing that fear
dismantling
research procedure for examining the effectiveness of isolated components of a larger treatment
response prevention
technique in which therapists prevent patients from performing their typical avoidance behaviors
participant modeling
therapist first models a problematic situation and then guides the patient through steps to cope with it unassisted
token economy
method in which desirable behaviors are rewarded with tokens that patients can exchange for tangible rewards
aversion therapy
treatment that uses punishment to decrease the frequency of undesirable behaviors
cognitive-behavior therapy
treatment that attempts to replace maladaptive or irrational cognitions with more adaptive, rational cognitions
group therapy
treats more than one person at a time

cheaper than individual therapy
Alcoholics Anonymous
12 step, self-help program that provides social support for achieving sobriety
abstinence violation effect
lapse in sobriety that can lead to continued drinking if people feel ashamed, guilty, or discouraged when they lapse
strategic family intervention
designed to remove barriers effective in communication for families
structural family therapy
therapists deeply involve themselves in family activities to change how members arrange and organize interactions
empirically supported therapies

ESTs
treatments for specific disorders supported by high-quality scientific evidence
List of ESTs
BEHAVIOR THERAPY

COGNITIVE THERAPY

INTERPERSONAL THERAPY

DIALECTICAL THERAPY
spontaneous remission
random recovery
occurs frequently
in neurotic patients, 72% experienced this
regression to the mean
extreme scores tend to become less extreme on their retesting

severe depression following a death will usually lighten up after time
pharmacotherapy
use of medications to treat psychological problems
electroconvulsive therapy
patients receive brief electrical pulses to the brain that produce a seizure to treat serious psychological problems
psychosurgery
brain surgery to treat psychological problems