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196 Cards in this Set
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social psychology
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+study of how people influence others' behavior, beliefs, and attitudes
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social facilitation
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the presence of others can enhance one's performance in certain situations
+depends on expertise/knowledge of person +depends on ease of task |
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social disruption
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presence of others can worsen one's behavior on a certain task
+task is usually difficult +person has little/no knowledge, expertise |
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need to belong theory
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humans have a biologically based need for interpersonal connections
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Evolutionary Perspective on Social Behavior
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Conformity, obedience, and many other forms of social influence become maladaptive only when they're blind or unquestioning.
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attributions
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assigning internal/external causes to behavior
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fundamental attribution error
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tendency to overestimate impact of dispositional influences on someone else's behavior
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dispositional influence
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enduring characteristics
+personality traits +attitudes +intelligence |
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social comparison theory
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evaluate our beliefs, abilities, and reactions by comparing them with those of others
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mass hysteria
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contagious outbreak of irrational behavior that spreads like the flu
+outbreak of crazy |
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collective delusions
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many people simultaneously become convinced that bizarre things are true
+for example, Godzilla is real |
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urban legends
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false stories repeated so many times that everyone now thinks they're true
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conformity
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tendency of people to alter their behavior as a result of group pressure
+activates the amygdala and the occipital and parietal lobes |
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parametric studies
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investigators systematically manipulate the independent variable in various ways to determine how it affects the dependent variable
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deindividuation
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tendency of people to engage in atypical behavior when stripped of their usual identities
+more vulnerable to social influences +caused by feeling of anonymity and a lack of individual responsibility |
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Mob Psychology
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Crowds are NOT always more aggressive than individuals
--depends on people within the crowd +people in crowds usually limit social interactions to minimize conflict |
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groupthink
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emphasis on group unanimity at the expense of critical thinking
--Bay of Pigs --NASA Challenger |
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group polarization
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group discussion strengthens dominant positions held by individual group members
--can be helpful in a timely pinch --mostly destructive |
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cults
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groups of individuals who exhibit intense and unquestioning devotion to a single cause
+Promote groupthink in four major ways 1)having a persuasive/charismatic leader who fosters loyalty 2)disconnecting group members from the outside world 3) discouraging questioning of the leader's assumptions 4)establishing training practices that gradually indoctrinate members |
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inoculation effect
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for an undesirable belief, gently introduce reasons as to why this belief seems correct, then refute those reasons
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obedience
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take orders from those higher up in the hierarchy than we are
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prosocial behavior
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behavior intended to help others
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pluralistic ignorance
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error of assuming that no one in the group perceives things as we do
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diffusion of responsibility
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presence of others makes each person feel less responsible for the outcome
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social loafing
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phenomenon in which people slack off in groups
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altruism
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helping others for unselfish reasons
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enlightenment effect
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learning about psychological research can change real world behavior for the better
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aggression
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behavior intended to harm others, either verbally or physically
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relational aggression
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form of indirect aggression marked by spreading rumors, gossiping, social exclusion, and nonverbal putdowns
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belief
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conclusion regarding factual evidence
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attitude
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belief that includes an emotional component
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self-monitoring
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trait that assesses the extent to which people's behaviors reflect their true feelings and attitudes
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recognition heuristic
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makes us more likely to believe something we've heard many times
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maladaptive gullibility
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falling for messages delivered by phony authority figures
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implicit egotism
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more positively disposed to people like us
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cognitive dissonance
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unpleasant state of tension due to two or more conflicting thoughts/cognitions
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self-perception theory
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we acquire our attitudes by observing our behaviors
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impression management theory
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we don't really change our attitudes in cognitive dissonance studies
we only tell experimenters that we have |
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foot-in-door technique
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start with a small request before making a bigger one
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door-in-face technique
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initial request is large, then lower it to a smaller request to induce guilt
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low-ball technique
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seller beings by quoting a price well below the actual sales price, then mentions "add-ons" so the buyer winds up paying more than the actual price
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prejudice
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prejudge before we've received all the evidence
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adaptive conservatism
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forge alliances with insiders while mistrusting outsiders
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in-group bias
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tendency to favor individuals inside our group relative to those outside of it
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out-group homogeneity
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tendency to view all people outside of our group as highly similar
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discrimination
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act of treating members of out-groups differently from members of in-groups
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stereotype
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positive or negative belief about a group's characteristics that we apply to most members of the group
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ultimate attribution error
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mistake of attributing the behavior of entire groups to their dispositions
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scapegoat hypothesis
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prejudice arises from a need to blame other groups for our misfortunes
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just-world hypothesis
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implies that many of us have a deep-seated need to see the world as fair
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jigsaw classrooms
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teachers assign children separate tasks that all need to be fitted together to complete a project
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traits
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relatively enduring predispositions that influence our behavior across many situations
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nomothetic approach
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understand personality by identifying general laws that govern the behavior of all individuals
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idiographic approach
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understand personality by identifying the unique configuration of characteristics and life history experiences within a person
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somatogenic
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physiologically caused
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catharsis
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feeling of relief following a dramatic outpouring of emotion
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psychic determinism
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the assumption that all psychological events have a cause
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id
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consists of our most primitive impulses
contains a variety of drives operates by the pleasure principle |
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pleasure principle
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immediate gratification of whatever it desires
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ego
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controls personality
tasked with interacting with the real world --finding ways to resolve the competing demands of the id and the superego governed by the reality principle |
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reality principle
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strives to delay gratification until it can find an appropriate outlet
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superego
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sense of morality
contains sense of right and wrong |
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defense mechanisms
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unconscious maneuvers intended to minimize anxiety
essential for psychological health |
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repression
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motivated forgetting of emotionally threatening memories or impulses
INTERNAL |
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denial
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motivated forgetting of distressing
EXTERNAL experiences |
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regression
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act of psychologically returning to a younger age
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reaction-formation
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transformation of an anxiety-provoking emotion into its opposite
EXAMPLE married worker is sexually attracted to her coworker but finds him repulsive |
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projection
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unconscious attribution of our negative characteristics to others
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displacement
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transferring our impulse from a socially unacceptable target onto a safer and more acceptable one
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rationalization
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provides a reasonable-sounding explanation for our unreasonable actions or behaviors
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intellectualization
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avoid emotions and focus on impersonal thoughts and facts
EXAMPLE newly divorced man cites divorce rates |
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identification with aggressor
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process of adopting characteristics of individuals we find threatening
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sublimation
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transforms socially unacceptable impulse into a socially beneficial one
EXAMPLE bully becomes a boxer |
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erogenous zone
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sexually arousing zone of the body
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oral stage
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mouth-oriented
infants obtain sexual pleasure via sucking and drinking |
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anal stage
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represents psychological conflict
children want to alleviate tension and experience pleasure by relieving their bowels --they can't do this whenever they want, so they must learn to inhibit urges --can lead to anal personalities |
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phallic stage
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children develop a strong opposite sex attraction to their parent
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Oedipus Complex
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young boy wants mom all for himself and hates his dad
--faced with fear of castration and attainment impossibilities --then identifies with his dad and no longer loves his mother |
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Electra Complex
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same thing as the Oedipus complex but with girls and their dads
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penis envy
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girls desire to possess a penis
--feelings of inferiority due to lack of penis --stupid |
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latency stage
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period of calm
the opposite sex is gross sexual impulses submerged to the unconscious |
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genital stage
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sexual impulses reawaken
emergence of mature romantic relationships |
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neo-Freudian theories
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emphasize unconscious influences in behavior
emphasize the importance of early experience in shaping personality more optimistic concerning prospects for personality growth through a lifetime LESS emphasis on sexuality as a driving personality force |
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style of life
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longstanding pattern of achieving superiority
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inferiority complex
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children who were pampered or neglected are prone to low self esteem & tend to overcompensate
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collective unconscious
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comprises all of the memories that ancestors have passed down to us across generations
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archetypes
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cross-culturally universal emotional symbols
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social learning theorists
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emphasize thinking as a cause of personality
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radical behaviorists
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emphasize all our actions are products of preexisting casual influences
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locus of control
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extent to which people believe that reinforcers and punishers lie inside or outside their control
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actualization
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drive to develop our innate potential to the fullest possible extent
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Roger's Model of Personality
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1)organism is our innate genetic blueprint
2)self is our self-concept 3)conditions of worth emanate from society and we internalize them |
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conditions of worth
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expectations we place on ourselves for appropriate and inappropriate behavior
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incongruence
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our personalities are inconsistent with our innate selves
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peak experiences
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transcendent moments of intense excitement and tranquility marked by a profound sense of connection to the world
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factor analysis
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analyzes correlations among responses on personality inventories and other measures and tries to identify the underlying factors that give rise to these correlations
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Big Five
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five traits that have surfaced repeatedly in factor analyses of personality measures
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lexical approach
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most crucial features of human personality are embedded in our language
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structured personality tests
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questions that a respondent must answer in one of a few fixed ways
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MMPI
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Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
--most extensively researched |
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empirical method of test construction
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researchers take one or two criterion groups and examine which items best distinguish those with and without a psychological disorder
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face validity
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extent to which respondents can tell what the items are measuring
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rational/theoretical method of test construction
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requires test developers to begin with a clear-cut conceptualization of a trait and then write items to asses that conceptualization
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projective tests
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ambiguous stimuli that examiners must interpret or make sense of
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projective hypothesis
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assumes that in the process of interpreting ambiguous stimuli, people inevitably project aspects of their personality onto the stimulus
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Rorschach Inkblot Test
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inkblot tests
scientifically controversial interrater reliabilities are problematic |
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incremental validity
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extent to which a test contributes information we couldn't glean from more efficient measures
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Thematic Apperception Test
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cards depicting ambiguous interpersonal situations
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graphology
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psychological interpretation of handwriting
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PT Barnum effect
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tendency of people to accept high base rate descriptions as accurate
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demonic model
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Middle Ages
mentally ill viewed as having demons or witchcraft responsible persecuted, tortured, and killed |
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medical model
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mental illness = physical disorder
mentally ill require medical treatment |
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asylums
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institutions for the mentally ill
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moral treatment
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mentally ill must be treated with dignity, kindness, and respect
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deinstitutionalization
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government sanctioned policy that called for the release of all hospitalized psychiatric patients and the closing of mental hospitals
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bulimia nervosa
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binging and purging
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anorexia nervosa
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excessive weight loss and irrational perception that they are overweight
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labeling theorist
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psychiatric diagnoses exert powerful negative effects on people's perceptions and behaviors
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prevalence
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percentage of people in the population with a disorder
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axes
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dimensions of functioning
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comorbidity
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individuals in one diagnosis usually have one or more diagnoses
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categorical model
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mental disorder is either present or absent
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dimensional model
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differ from normal functioning by degrees
EXAMPLE height |
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insanity defense
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shouldn't hold people legally responsible for crimes if they weren't of "sound mind" when they committed them
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incompetence to stand trial
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inability for defendant to understand charges levied against them and if they cannot consult with their lawyer
based on whether or not defendant possesses adequate mental capacity |
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involuntary commitment
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procedure for placing mentally ill in hospitals in order to protect society and themselves
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somatoform disorders
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people experience physical symptoms that suggest an underlying medical illness but are of psychological origin
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hypochondriasis
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one is suffering from some sort of serious physical disease
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panic attacks
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nervous feelings gather momentum and escalate into intense bouts of fear and terror
last < 10 min |
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panic disorder
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experience panic attacks that are repeated and unexpected
experience consistent concerns about panicking or change their behavior as a result of the attacks |
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generalized anxiety disorder
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tend to think anxious thoughts, feel irritable and on edge, have trouble sleeping, and experience a lot of bodily tension
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phobia
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intense fear of an object or situation that's greatly out of proportion to its actual threat
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agoraphobia
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fear of being in a place or situation in which escape is difficult or embarrassing
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specific phobia
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phobia of objects, places, or situations
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social phobia
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fear of public appearances in which embarrassment seems unlikely
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posttraumatic stress disorder
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a person witnesses a physically dangerous or life-threatening event
respond with intense fear, helplessness, or horror |
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obsessive-compulsive disorder
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suffer from obsessions, compulsions, and fear of the obsessions
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obsession
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persistent ideas, thoughts, or impulses that are unwanted or inappropriate
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compulsions
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repetitive behaviors or mental acts that they initiate in order to reduce or prevent distress
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major depressive episode
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person's difficulties center on extremely bleak mood and thoughts of suicide
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cognitive model of depression
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depression is caused by negative beliefs and expectations
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learned helplessness
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tendency to feel helpless in the face of events we can't control
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manic episode
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dramatically elevated mood, decreased need for sleep, greatly heightened energy, inflated self-esteem, increased talkativeness, and irresponsible behavior
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bipolar disorder
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person has history of at least one manic episode
>50% of the time a major depressive episode occurs after manic episode most genetically influenced increased activity in amygdala decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex |
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dissociative disorders
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disruptions in conscious, memory, identity, or perception
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depersonalization disorder
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multiple episodes of feeling detached from yourself
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dissociative amnesia
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inability to recall important information after a stressful experience
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dissociative fugue
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forget significant part of their lives and flee these stressful circumstances
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dissociative identity disorder
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presence of two or more distinct personality states or identities that recurrently take control of the person's behavior
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schizophrenia
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suffer delusions
severe disorder of thought and emotion associated with a loss of contact with reality levels of functioning plummet |
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delusions
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strongly held beliefs that have no basis in reality
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psychotic symptoms
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psychological problems reflecting serious distortions in reality
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hallucinations
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sensory perceptions that occur in the absence of an external stimulus
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catatonic symptoms
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motor problems
for example --extreme resistance complying with simple suggestions --body held in bizarre or rigid postures --curling up in fetal positions |
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Schizophrenia Causes
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brain tissue deterioration, ventricles expand
--decrease in amygdala and hippocampus activity --dopamine receptors are flawed --genetically inherited |
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Diathesis-stress model
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perspective proposing that mental disorders are a joint product of genetic vulnerability (diathesis) and stressors that trigger this vulnerability
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personality disorder
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personality traits are inflexible, stable, expressed in a wide variety of situations, and lead to distress or impairment
--appears in adolescence |
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borderline personality disorder
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extreme instability in mood, identity, and impulse control
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psychopathic personality
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superficial charm, dishonesty, manipulativeness, self-centeredness, guiltlessness, and risk-taking
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antisocial personality disorder
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lengthy history of illegal and/or irresponsible actions
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psychotherapy
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psychological intervention designed to help people resolve emotional, behavioral, and interpersonal problems and improve the quality of their lives
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paraprofessional
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person with no professional training who provides mental health services
--as helpful as those with training |
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insight therapies
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psychotherapies with the goal of expanding awareness or insight
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free association
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patients express themselves without censorship of any sort
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psychoanalysis
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first therapy ever
Freud goal: make unconscious conscious |
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resistance
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attempts to avoid confrontation and anxiety associated with uncovering previously repressed thoughts, emotions, and impulses
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transference
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projecting intense, unrealistic feelings and expectations from the past onto therapist
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work through
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confront and resolve problems, conflicts, and ineffective coping responses in everyday life
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interpersonal therapy
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treatment that strengthens social skills and targets interpersonal problems, conflicts, and life transitions
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humanistic-existential psychotherapy
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therapies that share an emphasis on the development of human potential and the belief that human nature is basically positive
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phenomenological approach
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therapists encounter patients in terms of the subjective phenomena they experience at the present moment
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person-centered therapy
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centered on patient's goals and ways of solving problems
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Gestalt therapy
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aims to integrate different and sometimes opposing aspects of personality into a unified sense of self
uses 2 chair technique |
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experiental therapies
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interventions that recognize the important of awareness, acceptance, and expression of feelings
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logotherapy
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helps people find meaning in their lives
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behavior therapists
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focuses on specific problem behaviors, and current variables that maintain problematic thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
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systematic desensitization
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patients are taught to relax as they are gradually exposed to what they fear, step by step
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exposure therapy
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confronts patients with what they fear with the goal of reducing that fear
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dismantling
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research procedure for examining the effectiveness of isolated components of a larger treatment
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response prevention
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technique in which therapists prevent patients from performing their typical avoidance behaviors
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participant modeling
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therapist first models a problematic situation and then guides the patient through steps to cope with it unassisted
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token economy
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method in which desirable behaviors are rewarded with tokens that patients can exchange for tangible rewards
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aversion therapy
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treatment that uses punishment to decrease the frequency of undesirable behaviors
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cognitive-behavior therapy
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treatment that attempts to replace maladaptive or irrational cognitions with more adaptive, rational cognitions
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group therapy
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treats more than one person at a time
cheaper than individual therapy |
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Alcoholics Anonymous
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12 step, self-help program that provides social support for achieving sobriety
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abstinence violation effect
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lapse in sobriety that can lead to continued drinking if people feel ashamed, guilty, or discouraged when they lapse
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strategic family intervention
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designed to remove barriers effective in communication for families
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structural family therapy
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therapists deeply involve themselves in family activities to change how members arrange and organize interactions
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empirically supported therapies
ESTs |
treatments for specific disorders supported by high-quality scientific evidence
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List of ESTs
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BEHAVIOR THERAPY
COGNITIVE THERAPY INTERPERSONAL THERAPY DIALECTICAL THERAPY |
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spontaneous remission
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random recovery
occurs frequently in neurotic patients, 72% experienced this |
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regression to the mean
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extreme scores tend to become less extreme on their retesting
severe depression following a death will usually lighten up after time |
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pharmacotherapy
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use of medications to treat psychological problems
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electroconvulsive therapy
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patients receive brief electrical pulses to the brain that produce a seizure to treat serious psychological problems
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psychosurgery
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brain surgery to treat psychological problems
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