Psyc

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Define Psychology

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The discipline concerned with behaviour and mental processesand how they are affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state, andexternal environment

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Define Scientific Method

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Objectively collect data through a set of steps

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Define Behavior

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The observable actions by which an organism adjusts to itsenvironment

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Define Psychobabble

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Supports popular often unsupported opinion-persists because peopleresist change or difference from their own opinion

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What are the goals of Psychology

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Describing what happens, why it happens (internal/externalforces), predicting what will happen, controlling what happens

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Define Critical thinking

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Observing unbiasedly and making a logical judgement- withoutemotion, Ask Questions, Be Willing to Wonder, Define Your Terms, Examine the Evidence,Analyze Assumptions and Biases

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Define Phrenology

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phrenologistsused to feel bumps on head to establish what kind of person you are

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Define Structuralism and think of the 4 names who evolved it.

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Emphasizes the “what” of mental behaviour-Basic elements ofsensation reveal the underlying structure of the mind. (Wilhelm Wundt, Edward Tichener, James Mark Baldwin, Max Wertheimer)

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Define Introspection

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would give all of us this information* what the thinking was-spendup to 20 minutes describing a 1.5 second experiment ex. Biting an orange, explaining in detail anysensation

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Define Functionalism and think of 2 men who evolved it

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Emphasizes the “why” of mental behaviour- What is the function of a given behaviour?Broadened the scope of psychology beyond the study ofobservable sensations (William James, John Dewey)

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What is modern Psychology

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Psychologistsexamine both the structure and the function of behaviour-Examine generalprinciples of behaviour as well as unique aspects of individuals-How weapproach the study of behaviour depends on our psychological perspective-Sevenperspectives:Psychodynamic, behaviourist, humanistic, cognitive, biological,evolutionary, and sociocultural

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What are the 7 psychological perspectives

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Psychodynamic Perspective,Behaviourist Perspective, Humanistic Perspective, Cognitive Perspective,Biological Perspective, Evolutionary Perspective, Sociocultural Perspective

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Define Psychodynamic Perspective

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Sigmund Freud-Behaviourexplained by inherited instincts, biological drives, and attempts to resolveconflicts-Emphasizes unconsciousprocesses and conflicts

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Define Behaviorist Perspective

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John Watson, and B.F. Skinner-Behaviour explained by antecedent conditions, behaviouralresponses, and consequences-Focus onobjective, observable behaviour

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Define Humanistic Perspective

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Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow -Emphasizes individual’s inherent capacity for making rationalchoices and developing to their full potential -Focus on self-actualization and a holistic approach

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Define Cognitive Perspective

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Humanthought and knowledge in attending, thinking, remembering, and understanding isimportant -Behaviour is more thanstimulus and response

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Define Biological Perspective

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Behaviourexplained in terms of underlying physical structures and biochemical processes -Focus on the functioning of thegenes, nervous system, and endocrine system

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Define Evolutionary Perspective

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CharlesDarwin -Emphasizes both behaviouraland mental adaptiveness Studies allanimals -Focus on natural selectionand the long process of evolution

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Define Sociocultural Perspective

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Cross-culturaldifferences in causes/consequences of behaviour -Some theories may not apply to all cultures -Group comparisons of multicultural nations such as Canada

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Two broadareas of research

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Basic Psychology- “pure” research conducted to seek knowledge for its own sakeApplied Psychology-Finds practical uses for the knowledgegained from research

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Experimental Psycologists

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Researchlearning, motivation, emotion, sensation and perception, physiology andcognition

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Educational Psycologist

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Searchfor ways to improve educational systemsspan

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Developmental psychologists

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Study how people grow and change over time

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Industrial/Organizationalpsychologistsagment

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Study behaviour in the workplace (decision-making, employeemorale, work motivation, etc.)

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Psychometricpsychologists

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Design and evaluate tests of mental abilities, aptitudes,interests and personality

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Counselling psychologists

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Helpwith everyday problems

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School Psychologists

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Workwith parents, students & teachers to enhance performance

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Clinical Psycologists

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Diagnose, treat, & study mental and emotional problems

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Schooling

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Most Clinical Psychologists have a PhD, EdD, or a PsyD(doctorate in psychology)-4 or 5 years graduate work in psychology-1 year ofinternship

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Psychotherapists

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Anyone who does any kind of psychotherapy

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Psychoanalysts

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Individualswho have trained in and practice psychoanalysis

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Psychiatrist

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Medicaldoctors who diagnose and treat mental disorders -only ones who can writeprescriptions

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Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) formed in what year

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1939

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American Psychological Association

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Psychology’s largest professional organization -53 divisions of psychology -Includes major areas (e.g.developmental, physiological) -Manyspecific research or professional interests

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Key characteristics of the ideal scientist

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Precision, Scepticism, Reliance on empirical evidence, Willingness to make “riskypredictions”, Openness]

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Operational Definition

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Define terms in hypotheses by specifying the operations for observing & measuring the process or phenomenon -how are the variables practically defined -e.g., anxiety defined as anticipation of receiving severe shock -permits assessment of validity

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Skepticism

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Treating claims with caution

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Empirical Evidence

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What scientists rely on do determine if a hypothesis is true

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Define Falsifiability

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Ascientific theory must make predictions that are specific enough to disconfirmthe theory -Predicts not only what will happen but also what will not happen -Confirmation bias -Tendency to seek and accept evidence that supports our theories & ignore evidence that contradicts beliefs

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Define Openness

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Scientist’swillingness to explain the source of their ideas, how they tested them, andwhat the results were -Enoughclarity so replication possible -Peerreview process ensures scientific standards and provides system of checks &balances

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Descriptive Studies

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Goal to describe and predict behaviour but does not allowcausal explanations Essential for all studies is obtaining a representativesample

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Define Case Study

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Adetailed description of a particular individual being studied or treated -Basedon careful observation or formal testing -May be used to formulate broaderresearch hypotheses -Most commonly used by clinicians -Occasionally byresearchers in preliminary stages of inquiry -Some serious drawbacks - more indepth detail than cold studies etc. -Observer may have bias’ -Person of study may have non vivid memories-May not represent larger group -Case studies usually sources, not tests ofhypothesist��^iE�u

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Observational Study

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Method where researchers systematically observe & recordbehaviour without interference -Naturalistic observation -Observations in normalsocial environment ex. Bar -Laboratory observation -Observations in a morecontrolled lab setting ex. Lab -Drawbacks:The presence of researchers andspecial equipment may cause people to behave differently -Doesn’t allowconclusions about causerO^u

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Psychological Tests

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Procedures usedto measure and evaluate personality traits, emotional states, aptitudes,interests, abilities, and values -Psychological tests can be -objective–measuring beliefs, feelings, or behaviours of which anindividual is aware; - projective—designed to tap unconscious feelings ormotive or projective -Characteristics of a good test include: -Standardization,reliability, validity

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Standardization

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Atest is standardized when uniform procedures for giving & scoring testexist -Proper scoring refers to norms or established standards of performance -Norms obtained by mass testing onintended populations to determinedifferent score ranges

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Reliability

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the consistency of scores derived from a test from onetime and place to the next or across scorers -Test-retest reliability

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Validity

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theability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure -Face validity-Content validity

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Surveys

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Are questionnaires & interviews that ask people aboutexperiences, attitudes, or opinions -Allow for extensive datacollection but many problems: -Obtaining representative sample (volunteer bias)-Truthfulness of responses -Type and phrasing of questions

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Correlation

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Study is a type of descriptive study that looks for arelationship between two phenomenaCorrelations: Measure of how strongly two quantifiablecharacteristics of behaviour (variables) are related to one another

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Positive Correlation

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Anassociation between increases in one variable and increases in another as X increases, Y increases

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Negative Correlation

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An association between increases in one variable anddecreases in anotherasX increases, Y decreases

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Experiment

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A controlled test of a hypothesis in which the researchermanipulates one variable to discover its effect on another An experiment includes: Variables of interest, control conditions, random assignment, and consideration ofexperimenter effects

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IndependentVariable

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Variable the experimenter manipulates

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Dependent variable

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Variablethat experimenter predicts will beaffected by manipulations of the independent variable

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Experimental Group

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Participantsin an experiment who are exposed to the manipulation of the independentvariableiable

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Control Group

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Participantsin an experiment who are not exposed to the manipulation of the independentvariable -May involve a placebo or “fake“treatment -Forms a control conditionfor comparison

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Experimental effects

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Unintendedchanges in participants behaviour due to cues inadvertently given byexperimenter -Prevent biases through single- or double-blind studies

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Advantages

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Experimentsallow conclusions about cause & effect-Help to detect real effects and strong empirical evidence

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Descriptive Stats

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Statisticalprocedures that organize and summarize research data (e.g., graphs &charts) Use arithmetic mean & standard deviation

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Inferential Stats

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Statistical procedures that allow researchers to drawinferences about how statistically meaningful a study’s results are -Mostcommon are significance tests -Indicate how likely a result occurred by chance-When likelihood is low, result is said to have statistical significance

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Interpretation

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maydepend on type of study: Cross-sectional studies: participants of different agescompared at a given time -Longitudinal studies: participants periodicallyreassessed over a period of time

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Judging Importance

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Statisticaltechniques may be used to determine if results are really important -Effectsize is a measure of how much variability among scores is accounted for by theindependent variable -Meta-analysis combines data from many studies; how muchvariance in scores across all studies is accounted for by a particular variable`

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Eight major ethicalprinciples

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Respect for human dignity

Respect for free & informed consent

Respect for vulnerable persons

Respect for privacy & confidentiality

Respect for justice & inclusiveness

Balancing harms and benefits

Minimizing harm

Maximizing benefit

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Ethics for Humans

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Must provide informed consent -Freedom to withdraw at any time -Minimize discomfort-Keep data confidential -If deception is necessary, must provide debriefing about true nature of study

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Ethics for Animals

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Animals used in psychological research for many reasons: Toconduct basic research; discover practical applications; study issues thatcannot be studied experimentally with humans; clarify theoretical questions;improve human welfare -Must abide by ethical codes for humane treatment ofanimals