Psyc 422 Lsus Sp09

Front 1

Neurons do two types of communication:

Back 1

Chemicals (Neurotransmitter) and Electricity (Action Potential)

Front 2

Three types of chemical communication:

Back 2

Gap Junctions
Direct Chemical Communication
Second Messenger

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Gap junction

Back 3

No chemicals involved. The ions go from the pre to the post (across the synapse) Crawfish have gap junctions to allow for quick escape. Humans have them in the heart and liver. Embryos have them but they disappear when they’re born. (Usually found in fish and frogs)

Front 4

direct chemical communication

Back 4

Neurotransmitter leave pre and go to post and hits a receptor site and a gate open up. Ions go through the gate (Sodium and Pottassium) They open and close quickly.

Front 5

second messenger

Back 5

Neuro transmitter comes across the synapse and hits the receptor site which in turn starts a protein. The protein (or enzyme)opens up the gate. They’re slower to open up but they stay open longer.

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Neurotransmitter 5 Criteria

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1. Must be present in the nervous system (brain). Serotonin is all over our body (especially in the gut) but it cannot cross the blood brain barrier. The brain makes its own supply of Serotonin.
2. Must be made by neurons.
3. They must be released by neurons.
4. You must remove the neurotransmitter after it does its job.
a. Degradation: Enzymes come through and destroy it.
b. Re-uptake: Recycle it Goes back to pre synapse (Better b/c it saves energy and time)
5. You must identify the site of action (Receptor site) If you find the receptor then you have a receptor site) (Location)

Front 7

Neuro Modulators

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Found in Nervous System also (Brain)
controls

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Neuro Hormones

Back 8

long distance.

Front 9

Three locations for vesicles ESSAY QUESTION

Back 9

Neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles. The pre-synapse is where the neurotransmitters are found. The vesicles are found only in certain locations (Presynapse) called active zones.
Also found in micro-filaments
Or further up in the axon
There is one neurotransmitter per vesicle
It takes one AP to launch vesicles

Front 10

Granules – ESSAY QUESTION

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Granules are larger than vesicles.
They are everywhere.
They are very fast
There are several granules + proteins + calcium per neurotransmitter
It takes three or four AP to launch granules

Front 11

Without action potential what happens

Back 11

Nothing happens it travels down the axon toward the terminal of buton. As it does it; it opens up calcium channels. There ARE NO calcium inside the neuron. Calcium wants to go inside b/c of diffusion. As it does it the calcium hits the vesicles and triggers them. The vesicles go down the pre synapse and dump their content. The calcium knows where to go b/c of snares.

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Snares do three things

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1. Attach calcium to vesicles and
2. Exocytosis (mover it down to the presynapse)
Snare drill a hole in the vesicle (and the presynapse terminal too) causeing the nutrients to get out of the vesicle and go to the presynapse.
3. Endocytosis – Picks up the empty vesicle and goes up the terminal where it is repackaged for the next transmission.

Front 13

Drug research manipulates neurons by:
ESSAY

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1. Stop the AP (calcium won’t open up)
2. Block calcium channels. This prevents from attaching to the vesicle.
3. X + Y Stop the manufacture (making) of neurotransmitters.
4. X + Y = Z Stop packaging of neurotransmitter.
5. Leak the vesicles. By the time they get to the bottom of the axon they’re empty and no good
6. Block the snares.
7. Stop the hole (release)
8. Block SSRI (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor)
9. Stop the degrading so they’ll last longer
10. Block the receptor (receiving) sites

Front 14

Three types of receptor sites

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These are located on the presynapse
1. Direct Gate – same concept of chemical communication (neural transmitter hit receptor and the gates open up
2. Second messenger concept – Neurotransmitter goes across the site and opens protein
3. Auto-receptors:

Front 15

Feedback

Back 15

We need receptor sites on the presynapse for “feedback”. Dopamine is pleasure (feel good) Lots of it in the system. When we have a lot in system the receptor sites say stop making it. Cocaine makes two problems 1. You can run out of dopamine. 2. Auto-receptors say shut down even more causing cocaine blues. Addicts will get depressed and commit suicide.

Front 16

Agonist

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Causes a biological reaction. Nicotine is an agonist. Body thinks nicotine is Acetylcholine (a natural chemical in body) and it gets confused.

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Antagonist

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Does not cause a reaction but it will occupy the receptor site and block it. Naltrexone. With heroine the lungs stop working. This drug naltrexone removes heroin from the receptor sites so that the lungs can work again.

Front 18

Three main types of neurotransmitters

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I. Small Molecule neurotransmitters
1. Acetylcholine is the first type. Three brain areas make it.
a. Medial
b. Septial
C. Nucleus
2. Nucleus Accombent will make it also (this is where nicotine works) The main thing of drug addiction works.
3. Nucleus Basalias of Meynert – controls muscle movement

Front 19

Functions of acetylcholine:

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Muscle movement and skeletal movement
Heart movement
Memory (Alzheimer have very little of acetylcholine) Smoking prevents alzheimers.

Front 20

Two types of acetylcholine receptors types: (They’re universal)

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1. Nicotinic Located in brain and muscles
a. N1
b. N2
2. Muscarinic – Poisonous Mushroom Located in heart muscle
a. M1
b. M2
c. M3
d. M4
e. M5
I know that my drug will operate M1 but not m2 – that’s how they know we have the different M’s. (could have many many many that we don’t know about)

Front 21

Acetylcholine prefers

Back 21

degradation instead of reuptake. The main chemical is acetylcholine Esters.

Front 22

Uses of Acetylcholine

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Bella Donna (poison) . Curare
Alzheimer’s patients have low levels of acetylcholine.
Nerve Agents (Poison Gas)

Front 23

Bella Donna (poison)

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Atropine and Scopaline together make Bella Donna but it decreases gastric juices for ulcers.

Front 24

Curare

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(poison darts made from the frogs in South America). Used for surgery b/c it paralyzes but you can still feel the surgery!!!

Front 25

Alzheimer’s patients have low levels of acetylcholine

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To extend acetylcholine in the system we stop the degrade enzyme therefore we have more acetylcholine in the system. Chinese green tea does this naturally. Huperzine A is the natural ingredient in the tea. (Not great job though) so there is actually something else in the tea that we don’t know about yet.
Medication that fits into the receptor sites themselves and causes a reaction to help with Alzheimer is ABT-418. It has a code name until it proves that it does a GOOD job with Alzheimer but it shows promise for the treatment of ADHD

Front 26

Nerve Agents

Back 26

Agents (Poison Gas) works on Acetylcholine also. Breath in the nerve agent and it goes to a particular spot in muscle and body tenses up so much that you can’t breathe and you will suffocate. They also stop the enzyme from degrading (inhibit acetylcholine from degrading). Atropine is used by military in warfare b/c it takes the out of system. We also have diazepam (prevents seizures). Pyridinum frees the degrading enzyme so it can work again.

Front 27

3 Types of acetylcholine

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1. First Release
2. Stationary Release (When potassium enters the cell)
3. Surplus acetylcholine (never released – just stays there)

Front 28

Catacholamines

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1. Dopamine – Stored in vesicles. Prefers re-uptake
Controls pleasure and movement. Can not cross the blood brain barrier but aladopa can (step before dopamine)once inside the brain the brain converts it to dopamine. Parkinson has low dopamine so we use aladopa that can cross the blood brain barrier so it can be converted to dopamine. The problem is that Parkinson’s destroys the chemical that converts aladopa to dopamine.
2. Epinephrine Stored in granules. We don’t know much else
3. Norepinephrine – Stored in granules. We don’t know much else

Front 29

Dopamine Receptors

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D1 Like are D1 and D5 Subtypes
D2 Like are D2, D3, and D4
To treat schizophrenia we use D2 Like receptor drugs.
D6 and D7 are new don’t know much about them except they’re in your gut.

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Three location for Dopamine Receptors

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1. Nucleus Accumbens (lots of dopamine) Cocaine works here. Addiction center in the brain.
2. Substantia Nigra – Parkinson’s destroys this part of the brain. (Charge of movement)
3. Nose (lots of dopamine) (related to sense of smell)

Front 31

What else catacholamines do

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MAO A and MAO B will break down and destroy the catacholamines
MAO A breaks down ephi and nora
MAO B targets Dopamine

The brain monitors dopamine levels with auto receptors very tightly. 3 types come across
1. Monitors the release of dopamine (how much and how little is released)
2. Monitors the making of dopamine
3. Controls the AP (or impulses) that release dopamine.

Front 32

Cocaine works on dopamine

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Cocaine is pleasurable and made from cocoa leaves. You chew the leaves and you can work all day – without eating. Europeans figured out it was the leaves and put it in coca-cola. (early 1900s).
Cocaine works by blocking the re-uptake of dopamine. We use transporters to bring the dopamine back to the presynapse for re-uptake. Cocaine changes it so that they cannot “dock” (re-uptake) at the receptor so it goes back to the post synapse meaning that it hangs around longer so the person feels good. Until you run out of dopamine.

In the 1970s people snorted the powder form. 1980s people use crack (smoke it) and its cheap because we think one dealer in NY decided to sell it cheap and the market price was set.

Front 33

Amphetamine works on Dopamine also

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1950s they used it as a diet drug. Works like cocaine. Have vesicles filled with dopamine and amphetamine kicks them out of the vesicles so that they leak out and go to the receptor site. You’re getting a double whammy b/c you get dopamine first then the amphetamine hits you.

Front 34

Epi and Nora

Back 34

are linked to depression. If your depressed there is a decrease of Epi and Nora MAOI (which is MAO inhibiter) inhibit the break down of Epi and Nora. If taking MAOI do not drink wine or eat cheese – raises blood pressure and causes heart attacks – called the cheese effect)

Front 35

Three main types of neurotransmitters

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Serotonin (5-HT)– cannot cross the blood brain barrier so the brain makes it own by using meat and milk. When we are awake serotonin is high, when asleep 5-HT is low. In the pineal gland there is a lot of serotonin. Controls of sleeping cycle. Pineal gland uses sunlight to make serotonin. They cut eyes out of kittens and the pineal gland still made serotonin – so its not through the eyes.
Serotonin prefers re-uptake. MAO B and MAO A will break (degrade) serotonin

Front 36

Three main receptor sites for serotonin

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1. 5HT 1
2. 5HT 2
3. 5HT 3
There are about 15 subtypes (14 of these are second messengers – they are longer acting)

Front 37

Serotonin does things

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1. Smooth Muscle Movement
2. Sleeping and Dreaming
3. Daily Cycles (waking and sleeping)
4. Aggression (Men in prison isolation have lower serotonin) (Women stay the same)
5. Mental Illness –
Depression – Low 5HT (serotonin) Use inhibitors and block reuptake. Prozac like cocaine block reuptake. MAO A and MAO B prevent the breakdown of serotonin.

Front 38

LSD is an agonist

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(prevents) breakdown of serotonin. Created for morning sickness but it didn’t work good.
Rephe Nucleis is the part of the brain that LSD will target (works on). Inhibits the sensory overload. They removed rephe nuclei from the monkeys to see if they started tripping and they didn’t.

Front 39

XTC works on Serotonin

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XTC makes you thirsty because you get very hot. Makes people very nice (like to hug people) (get very sexual also but it will cause impotency in men) The muscles get tense so people use a pacifier for the jaw clenching. It also targets the Rephe Nuclei but its called the Dorsal Rapha Nuclei.

Front 40

LSD compared to XTC

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XTC makes you feel more pleasure than LSD. People are more likely to use (compulsively)XTC over LSD
LSD has more tolerance than XTC
LSD has flashbacks (you feel like you’re still on it years later) No idea why

Front 41

AMINO ACID Neurotransmitter

They are inhibitory OR excitory. But not both.

Back 41

Gaba – Inhibitory – Calms Down
Glyacin – Inhibitory (calms down) prefer re-uptake
Glutamate – Excitory (hypes up)

Front 42

Three receptor types:

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1. Gaba A
Direct (quick)
2. Gaba B
Second Messenger (Slower)
3. Gaba C (Not to sure if they exist or not)

Front 43

Four types of drugs that work at Gaba sites

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1. Benzo’s examples are Xanax (Zanax)
2. Picretoxin – Plant poison
3. Barbituates (Phen-al-bar-ba-tol) (knock you out) they use horse urine to make but human is more effective.
4. Steroids –

Front 44

Glyacin

Back 44

Transporter one is GlyT1 and GlyT2 (helps to bring back to brain) forebrain area
Most is in the brain stem or Spinal Cord Babies have lots of it, but we lose it as we grow older. Causes you to get tense (ridgid) and tired plus seizures if the glycin messes up

Front 45

Glutamate

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most abundant neurotransmitter in system (in brain) if to much is released you will die from brain damage.
Transporters are EAAT1-5 help with re-uptake.

Front 46

We have 12 receptor types of glutamate :

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4 direct messengers:
AP5
NMDA
Kainate
Quisqulate

8 second messengers:
MGLUR 1-8
They are flip-flops. These receptors can change (direct can become second messengers are vice versa)

Front 47

Nitric Oxide (NO)

Back 47

think is a neurotransmitter. not stored in vesicle. We make it when we need it. no receptor sites.binds to iron Prozac blocks NO

Front 48

Neuro Peptides

Back 48

Three types of pain killers
1. Endorphins
2. Met Cakephulin
3. Leu-Cakephulin
MU has M1 and M2 we think is linked to addiction
Kappas is K1, K2 and K3
Deltas: D1 and D2
Sigmas (don’t do pain) they’re located in the hippocampus. PCP attaches to them.
Epsilon - dont know about

Front 49

Neuro peptide Y

Back 49

the most abundant in system. Found in gut (deals with appetite) Deals with stress and blood pressure. Has 4 receptor sites Y1-Y4

Front 50

Drugs

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Any substance that changes you.

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Route of administration:

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1. Mouth (slowest) b/c goes to gut and has to be digested. It’s easy to administer
2. Skin (rub on lotion) Might come off on someone else or while swimming. Could cause rash. Could smell bad or turn colors.
3. Smoking - Damage to lungs, Smell bad, Rules to prevent smoking In certain areas, could break it.
4. Injection – Infections, it is painful, blood vessels might collapse,

Side effect is drug may go to wrong target site and cause a bad reaction (dry mouth, diarrhea, dizziness etc)
May develop a tolerance and have to increase dosage. Body is resisting the drug.

Front 52

slowest

Back 52

by mouth

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quickest

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injection

Front 54

Types of tolerances - resisting the drug

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1. Metabolic tolerance – Body becomes better at breaking the drug down
2. Cellular tolerance – Creates more receptor sites which means now we need more drugs to fill up the newly formed sites.
3. Behavioral tolerance – Behavior changes when you’re on the drug. (When you’re drunk you walk different.
4. Cross tolerance – If you’re drinking alcohol you shouldn’t take zanax because it’s a bad combination. Alcohol and Valium are very close in structure. If you’re drunk and take valium you could die.

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Withdrawal

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opposite of the drugs effect

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Substance Abuse

Back 56

get a DWI, hung-over

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Substance Dependence

Back 57

Try to quit but you can’t

Front 58

rats

Back 58

hate nicotine but likes cocaine or heroine

Front 59

Stages of Addiction

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1. Drug must feel good. We have natural reinforces inside of us (Eating, Accomplishments, Social Behavior etc)
2. natural high: eating, drinking, high
3. Brain gets confused when using cocaine and heroine because it confuses the drug with a natural high

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Two brain areas involved in addiction (lots of dopamine here)

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1. Nucleus Accumbers (NA)
2. Ventral Tagmental Area (VTA)

Front 61

America's drug rehab vs England

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- abstinence
- teach you how to drink (controlled drinking) will only work if:
- young
- first time rehab
- must have no fam history

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rehab will

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1. detox - eliminate drug from system. dangerous b/c ur body is accustomed to alcohol. you will go through DTs
2. Maintenance - methadone used to detox from heroine
- no drug used for cocaine detox
3. relapse - environmental cues. men have higher rates than women because:
- no social support
- men use more drugs

Front 63

Marijuana (Reefer)

Back 63

Effects of weed are
1. Munchies
2. Relax
3. Paranoria
4. Decrease in reaction time
5. Memory decreases
6. Cotton mouth (Dry mouth)
7. Helps with pain or glaucoma
8. Heart rate increases
9. REM goes down

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Agent for marijuana

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THC

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Ways to use marijuana

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1. Hashish (blocks)
2. Thai sticks (Tie weed to bamboo with rastic hair and smoke)
3. Add crack, PCP, formaldehyde to it

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Receptor sites for weed (Where weed attaches to sites is called)

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CB1 – Hippocampus (memory problems), Spinal Cord, Brain Stem, Cortex
CB2 – Related to immune system

Front 67

Hormones

Back 67

Hormones travel long distances. (Neurotransmitters are specific)
Hypathalamus is important to hormones
Pituitary Gland
Endocrine Glands

Front 68

Hormones

Back 68

1. Homeostasis – (Important function of hormones) Keeps body balanced
Hormones control sugar in body (produced by pancreases)
2. Sex hormones
Men is testosterone (Steroids are synthetic testosterone)
Body builders use testosterones (makes them rape coke machines)
Women is Estrogen

Front 69

Stress Hormones
ESSAY QUESTION (favorite)

Back 69

Immediate is short term (Adrenaline). Long term is Cortisol.
Cortisol leaves you tired after an exam. It is a motivation for the whole week.
1. Cortisol is controlled by HPA (Hypothalamus, Pituitatory, Adrenal Axis)
2. The amygdale and hippocampus control the HPA.
3. When you’re stressed it opens the calcium channels (CA+) longer. (Releases more and more vesicles (glutamate)
4. Glutamate is toxic to the brain
5. Hippocampus has feedback receptor sites which monitor cortisol. If cortisol gets high the hippocampus tells the amygdale to turn off the HPA which will cause the cortisol levels to go down.
6. Cortisol (to much for to long) will destroy the hippocampus. Which in turn makes the amygedela pump more and more cortisol (b/c the hippocampus is dead)
In Kenya the monkeys were raiding the crops and the farmers caught the baboons. In baboon culture if you’re the Alpha male you’re the “Big Fish”. They put them in cages next to each other (side by side); the lower level baboons actually dies of stress.
In PCP we have flashbacks and nightmares. We think the hippocampus (memories) is responsible for the flashbacks and nightmares.

Front 70

vesicles vs grandules

Back 70

smaller, active zones, micro, further up, slow, 1 AP
found everywhere, larger, faster, several, 3 or 4 AP