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162 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Psychology
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science in which we study behaviors and mental processes
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Roots of psychology
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philosophy and natural sciences
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Early philosophers question
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basis of consciousness
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Empiricists
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knowledge gained through experiences and interactions with the world around you
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Nativists
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knowledge and reasoning are innate and that over time knowledge is assessed
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Well known Empiricists
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Locke
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well known Nativists
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Decartes
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Hippocrates contribution from natural science
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relationship between mind and body
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Wundt
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father of experimental psychology, established first psychology lab in 1879 in Germany
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Structuralists
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-interested in studying the structure of conscious experience
-studied sensation and perception -greatest contribution was stimulating research |
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Functionalism
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-wonder what mental processes accomplish
-how to help people live and adapt -attention towards behavior, use, and function |
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psychoanalysis
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-unconscious contributions to attitudes, impulses, motivations, wishes, and thoughts
-dream analysis and free association -childhood experiences |
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biological perspective
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-biochemical and bioelectrical processes of behavior
-brain areas in influencing function |
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cognitive perspective
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cognitions underlie behaviors
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evolutionary perspective
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integration of biology and psychology
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behavioral perspective
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-act based on reinforcements and rewards
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psychoanalytic perspective
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-Death Instinct
-Superego, Ego, Id |
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phenomenological perspective
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-look for security
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Clinical/Counseling Psychologists
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Psychologists who seek to assess, understand, and change abnormal behavior
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Freud
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Psychoanalysis
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William James
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Functionalism
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John B. Watson
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Behaviorism
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Wilhelm Wundt
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structuralism
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Research Process
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-state problem
-design study -measure variables -analyze data -draw conclusions |
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Theory
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proposed network of relations among constructs that seek to explain behavior
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Deductive approach
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theory, then data collection
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Inductive approach
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data collection, then theory
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hypothesis
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scientific guess about the predicted relationship or direction of effects
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Independent variable
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variable which is manipulated
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dependent variable
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factor that is measured, observed, or studied
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experimental group
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group in which the manipulation group is present
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control group
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group in which the manipulation is absent
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Drunk vs. Disabled subway study
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People more likely to help same race and help disabled people
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correlation coefficient
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mathematical summary of relationship between 2 variables
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strength of association
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higher absolute value means stronger relationship
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direction of association
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negative: as one variable increases, other decreases
positive: both variables increase |
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naturalistic observation
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-Way of understanding how things happen in real world
-Watch people or animals interact |
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case study example
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-Man with pole through head
-See what happened to behavior from where pole went |
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case study
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intensive examination of some phenomenon in a particular individual, group, or situation
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survey
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a research method that involves giving people questionnaires or special interviews designed to obtain descriptions of their attitude, beliefs, opinions, and intentions
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two research methods:
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experimental method and correlational method factors
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correlational study
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examine relationships between variables in order to describe research data more fully, to test preductions, to evaluate theories, and to suggest new hypotheses
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random variable
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uncontrolled and sometimes uncontrollable
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confounding variables
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any factor that affects the dependent variable along with or instead of the independent variable
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correlation
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degree to which one variable is related to another
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realism
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practice of excepting a situation as it is and being prepared to deal with it
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precision
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being accurate
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generalizability
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infer general principles
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Continuous
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quantitative changes occur - new skills are added to old skills
ex growth in vocabulary |
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discontinuous
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qualitative change –
-Change occurs in stages -Marked and abrupt changes -For instance crawling to walking |
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Examples of discontinuous approach
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-Piaget – not change in quantity but quality of thinking
-Kohlberg’s theory of moral development -Freud’s theory of psychosexual development -Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development |
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Discontinuous approach theory
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One theory: Stage like changes at times of biological change or environmental change – otherwise more gradual change
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Critical period
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Influence labor and delivery practices based on ideas of bonding
*Attachment theory |
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Sensitive period
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Times optimal for development to occur
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Nature vs. Nurture Biological contributions
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genetics or organic
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Nature vs. Nurture Environmental Contributions
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environmental influences
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Kagan and Scarr
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if innate, more likely to be stable
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4 Broad Theoretical Frameworks
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Biological Maturation
Environmental Learning Constructivist Cultural-Context |
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Biological maturation framework
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Internal to the individual contribute to developmental change
-Limited role of environment -Pinker |
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Environmental learning framework
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-Biology sets stage
-Environment most significant role -Learning -Watson |
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Constructivist framework
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Both biology and environment shape development
-Piaget -Children play active role -Changes are universal but rate is dependent on environment -JHS |
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Cultural-context framework
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Constructivist view but added cultural prediction
-Moderates interaction between biological and environmental factors |
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Infancy (time, what's happening)
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40 weeks
-Rapid change -Potential for damage -Showcase for nature and nurture |
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Maternal distress during pregnancy (what can happen)
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-Preterm delivery
-Low birth weight -Effects on behavioral and cognitive development -Through physiological effects |
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Maternal distress study in animals. Results:
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Delayed motor development, reduced attention, enhanced stress response and maladaptive social behavior with peers
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Maternal distress study in humans. Results:
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*Notable differences:
-Physiological differences in pregnancies -Women stressed before are likely stressed after -Type of stress is different – although study of WTC is interesting analogy *YET seems to be an association |
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Negative correlation in human maternal distress study
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stress and attention of 8 month old during developmental assessment
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positive association in maternal distress study
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between maternal stress and problem behavior during preschool
-Problem – parent report! |
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Bodily problems that maternal stress causes
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-Reduced blood flow to fetus
-Fetal stress hormones similar to maternal levels |
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Prenatal development as model for subsequent development
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-sequence is fundamental
-timing is important -stage like characteristics -development proceeds unevenly -development punctuated by periods of regression |
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developmental psychology
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concerned with the course and causes of the developmental changes that take place over a person's entire lifetime.
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maturation
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natural growth or change that unfolds in a fixed sequence relatively independent of the environment
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critical period (definition)
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an interval during which certain kinds of growth must occur if development is to proceed normally
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John Bowlby
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wanted to understand the tie of children to the mother
-attachment theories |
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core need
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survival
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Means developed through being a mother:
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-Attachment behavior
-Proximity seeking behavior -Control systems approach *Condition of the child *Condition of the environment *Condition of the parent |
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child behavioral systems
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-fear
-exploratory -play |
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Attachment Styles
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-Secure
-Anxious Avoidant -Anxious Resistant/Ambivalent -Disorganized |
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The Strange Situation
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Mary Ainsworth
-child's response to leaving and returning caregiver -cries when parent leaves her with the stranger -showed signs of secure attachment |
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Harlow
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-monkeys choose comfort over food
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Phases of attachment
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Birth to 3 months
3 months to 7 months Later infancy and childhood Cradle to the grave |
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Attachment also influences:
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influence kinds of peer relationships
-High quality/secure - exploration -Internal working models -expectations, behavior, interpretations |
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Childrearing
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affection and power
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Four kinds of child rearing
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-Authoritarian
-Authoritative -Indulgent -Indifferent/uninvolved *Relationship styles *Skill development *Learning and practice |
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Discipline types
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-power assertive (aggression)
-inductive (prosocial) |
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With Discipline, what is important?
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consistency!
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family environments and stress can produce:
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Aggression, withdrawal, antisocial behavior, lower social and academic competence
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Family psychopathology
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role of parental depression
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Designer
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access controlled due to choices
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Mediator
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bridge in social relationships
-finding, arranging, creating, negotiating, and avoiding |
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Supervisor
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-interactive
-directive -consultant |
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poor peer relationships tied to
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-delinquency
-psychopathology -social isolation -school drop out |
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how much of waking hours with peers?
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40%. Decreased time with adults
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Horizontal Relationship
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-Equal power
-Learn – cooperation and intimacy -Harmonious and conflictual -Different challenges and opportunities |
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Vertical Relationship
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parent-child
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well liked traits
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-attractiveness
-compromising -negotiating -fit into new groups -prosocial |
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rejected traits
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-aggressive
-overestimate -underestimate -hostile -ambiguity |
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relational aggression
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-eye rolling
-social aggression -exclusion -gossip |
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Adolescence Friendships -Sullivan
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-intimacy
-self disclosure -support |
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Adolescence Romantic Relationships
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-training grounds
-focus on oneself -growing intimacy |
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Adolescence Sexuality
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-friendships with benefits
-hook ups -one night stands -oral sex |
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Ericson’s Psychosocial Stages
First YEar |
Trust and Mistrust
(if needs are met) |
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Ericson’s Psychosocial Stages
Second Year |
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
(exercise will or become uncertain) |
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Ericson’s Psychosocial Stages
Third-Fifth Year |
Initiative vs. Guilt
(initiate activities or feel guilty at attempts) |
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Ericson’s Psychosocial Stages
Sixth Year-Puberty |
Industry vs. Inferiority
(curiosity and eager to learn or lose interest in tasks) |
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Ericson’s Psychosocial Stages
Adolescence |
Identity vs. Role Confusion
(see themselves as unique or are confused about what they want in life) |
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Early Adulthood
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Intimacy vs. Isolation
(commit themselves to another or have nobody but themselves) |
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Middle Age
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Generativity vs. Stagnation
(have and care for children or become self centered and inactive) |
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Old Age
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Ego Integrity vs. Despair
(Reflect and accept death or are upset about unaccomplished goals and failures) |
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attachment
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a deep and enduring relationship with the person whom a baby has shared many experiences
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Authoritarian parents
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relatively strict, punitive, and unsympathetic. Value obedience from the child and authority for themselves
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Permissive parents
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more affectionate and lack discipline. give great deal of freedom.
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Authoritative parents
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fall between two extremes. Reason with the child, encourage give-and-take, are firm but understanding
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Uninvolved parents
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parents who are indifferent to their children. Focus on own needs before child's
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Piaget was a
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constructivist
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Schema
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generalizations based on experience that form the basic units of knowledge
-mental structure |
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adaptation
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assimilation and accommodation
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Equilibrium
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tug of war between assimilation and accommodation which results in moving child to higher and more complex levels of cognitions
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Piaget's 4 Periods of Cognitive Development
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-Sensorimotor
-Preoperational -Concrete operational -Formal operational |
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assimilation
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the process of trying out existing schemas on objects that fit those schemas
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accommodation
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the process of modifying schemas when familiar schemas do not work
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Piaget's Sensorimotor period
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When infant's mental activity is confined to sensory perception and motor skills
-birth to 2 years |
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Characteristics of Sensorimotor period
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-A not B error
-egocentrism -world in the present -lack of object permanence |
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object permanence
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the knowledge that objects exist even when they are not in view
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Piaget's Preoperational Period
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Children begin to use symbols to represent things that are not present
-2 to 7 |
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Characteristics of Preoperational Period
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-symbolic representation
-weakness of egocentrism and centration |
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Egocentrism
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perceiving world from one's own point of view
-difficulty with spatial perspective |
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conservation
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Quantity of matter is constant regardless of changes in appearance
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Piaget's Concrete Operations Period
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Children's thinking is no longer dominated by visual appearances
-7-12 years |
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Characteristics of Concrete operational period
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*Logical
-More than one feature -More than appearance -Transformation -Mislead *knowledge based *attention *planning *metacognition *meta memory |
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Metacognition
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ability to think about one's thoughts
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Piaget's Formal Operational Period
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-4th
-12 years and beyond -Abstract thinking first appears |
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Characteristics of Formal Operational Period
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Systematic thought
Logical Abstract complex |
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Fischer
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Identity formation
-must consider substages of formal operational period -early, middle, late adolescence |
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When asked to compare their relationships and conflicts/distress,
early adolescents |
don't see the differences
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When asked to compare their relationships and conflicts/distress, middle adolescents
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see the differences and causes of distress
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When asked to compare their relationships and conflicts/distress, late adolescents
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can integrate multi-faceted self into one identity
-except girls? |
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Criticisms of Piaget
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-underestimates environment
-are basics innate and skills learned? |
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Vygotsky
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Birth to Death
-social interactions and social learning -Reciprocal learning -Peer collaboration -Target instruction at level just above where student is now -Heterogeneity -Shared goals |
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Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development
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Distance between what can do on one’s own and what can do with guidance of social partner
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Lab Section
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002
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emotions
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-subjective feelings
-physiological feelings -desire to take action -thoughts |
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Function of emotion
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-motivate behavior
-promote action towards goal |
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action tendency
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the motivation to behave in certain ways
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Negative emotions
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Motivates us to engage in behavior that makes us feel less bad
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Discrete Emotions theory
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emotions are innate
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Infancy emotions
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joy, distress, wariness
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Social emotions
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-2 years
-pride, shame, embarrassment Kids have: Parental communication Self distinct Autonomy Cognitive capacity Understand adults react |
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Basic emotions are
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innate
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social and more complex emotions are
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learned and socialized
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Emotion regulation
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Modulate, Maintain, Enhance
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Early emotion regulation
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-self soothing (ie thumb sucking)
-social referencing -withdrawl/avoidance (run away) -self distraction (toys) |
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Low quality parent-child relationship makes child:
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more self soothing and explorative
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High quality parent-child relationship makes child:
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more social referencing and affective sharing
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Development of Emotion Regulation
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parents as external regulators
-allows to explore emotions -learn to regulate own emotions -parents scaffold over time |
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socialization of emotion
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model ways of dealing with emotion
-manage own emotions |
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social referencing
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the process of letting another person's emotional state guide our own behavior
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dysregulation
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Poor fit between mom and child
*Better – reactive child and sensitive and supportive caregiver |
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Attuned interaction
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Mom – read signals and stimulate or modulate arousal
Then teach child -Physically or emotionally unavailable -Depression |
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Still faced paradigm
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mom has no emotion to child who is use to getting a reaction. Good emotional regulation strategies – can handle this stress
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Delayed gratification paradigm
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Marshmallow test
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Disappointment paradigm
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