Psyc 104 Final

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Empirical study

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results of verifiable evidence form a systematiccollection and analysis that has been objectively observed, measures, andundergone experimentation.

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Basic research

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research that answers fundamental questionsabout behavior

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Applied research

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research that investigates issues that haveimplications of everyday life and provides solutions to everyday problems.

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Theory

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an integrates set of principals that explainsand predicts many, but not all, observed relationships within a given domain ofinquiry

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Research hypothesis

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a precise statement of the presumed relationshipamong two or more variables.

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Variable

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any attribute that can assume different valuesamong different people or across different times or places

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Conceptual variables

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abstract ideas that form the basis of researchhypotheses.

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Measured variables

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variables consisting of numbers that representthe conceptual variables

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Operational definition

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a precise statement of how a conceptual variableis turned into a measured variable.

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Scientific Method

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the set of assumptions, rules, and proceduresscientists use to conduct research

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Reliability

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the extent to which an experiment, test, or measuring procedure yields the same results on repeated trials.

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Descriptiveresearch

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is used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being studied. It does not answer questions about how/when/why the characteristics occurred.

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Casestudies

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descriptive records of one or more individuals’experiences ad behavior.

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Survey

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a measure administered through either aface-to-face or telephone interview, or a written or computer-generatedquestionnaire-to get the picture of the beliefs or behaviors of a sample ofpeople of interest

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Sample

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the people chosen to participate in the research

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Population

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all of the people that the researcher wished toknow about

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Naturalisticobservation

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research based on the observation of everydayevents occurring in the natural environment of people or animals

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Observerbias

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happens when the individual observing behavioris influenced by their own experiences, expectations or knowledge about thepurpose of the observation or study

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Observereffect

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interference with or modification of thesubject’s behaviors by the process of observation

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Interraterreliability

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estimate how much agreement there is between thetwo observers about what the subjects were doing

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Correlationalresearch

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a relationship between two variables.

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Scatterplot

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visual image of the relationship between twovariables

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Linearrelationship

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when the association between the variables onthe scatter plot can be easily approximated with a straight line

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Pearsoncorrelation coefficient

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the most common statistical measure of thestrength of linear relationships among variables

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Common-causalvariable

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a variable that is not part of the researchhypothesis but that caused both the predictor and the outcome variable and thusproduces the observed correlation between them

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Spuriousrelationship

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a relationship between two variables inwhich a common-causal variable produced and “explains away” the relationship

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Experimentalresearch

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where the researcher manipulates one variable, and control/randomizes the rest of the variables.

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Independentvariable

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the causing variable that is created(manipulated) by the experimenter

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Dependentvariable

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a measured variable that I expected to beinfluenced by the experimental manipulation

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Randomassignment to conditions

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procedure in which the condition tat eachparticipant is assigned to its determined through a random process, such asdrawing numbers out of an envelope or using a random number table

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Quasi-experimentaldesign

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compares two groups that already exist in thepopulation

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Internal validity

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the extent to which we can trust the conclusionsthat have been drawn about the casual relationship between the independent anddepended variables

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Confounding variables

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variables other than the independent variable onwhich the participants in one experimental condition differ systematically fromthose in other conditions

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Experimenter bias

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situation in which the experimenter subtlythreats the research participants in the various experimental conditionsdifferently, resulting in an invalid confirmation of the research hypothesis

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Double-blind experiment

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both the researcher and the researchparticipants are blind to condition

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External validity

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the extent to which the results of a researchdesign can be generalized beyond the specific way the original experiment wasconducted

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Generalization

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the extent to which relationships amongconceptual variables can be demonstrated in a wide variety of people and a widevariety of manipulated or measured variables

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Replication

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a term referring to the repetition of a research study, generally with different situations and different subjects, to determine if the basic findings of the original study can be generalized to other participants and circumstances.

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Neuron

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a cell in the nervous system whose function itis to receive and transmit information

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Soma

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cell body which contains the nucleus of the celland keeps the cell alive

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Dendrite

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branching, treelike fiber which collects informationfrom other cells and send the information to the soma

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Axon

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long segmented fiber which transmits informationaway from the cell body toward other neurons or to the muscles and glands

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Myelin sheath

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layer of fatty tissue surrounding the axon of aneuron that both acts as an insulator and allows faster transmission of theelectrical signal

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Terminal button

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of a neuron are the small knobs at the end of an axon that release chemicals called neurotransmitters.

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Synapses

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the spaces between cells

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Restingpotential

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a state in which the interior of the neuroncontains a greater number of negatively charged ions than does the area outsidethe cell

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Action potential (including electriccharge)

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this changes in electrical charge occurs in aneuron when a nerve impulse is transmitted

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Node of Ranvier

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the gaps between segments of myelin sheath

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Neurotransmitter

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a chemical that relays signals across thesynapses between neurons

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Reuptake

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a process in which neurotransmitter that are inthe synapse are reabsorbed into the transmitting terminal buttons, ready toagain be released after the neuron fires

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Acetylcholine(ACh)

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used in the spinal cord and motor neurons tostimulate muscle contractions. It’s also used in the brain to regulate memory,sleeping, and dreaming.

Alzheimer’s disease is associated with anundersupply of acetylcholine.

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Dopamine

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Involved in movement, motivation, and emotion,dopamine produces feelings of pleasure when released by the brain’s rewardsystem, and it’s also involved in learning.

Schizophrenia is linked to increases indopamine, whereas Parkinson disease is linked to reductions in dopamine

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Endorphins

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Released in response to behaviors such asvigorous exercise, orgasm, and eating spicy foods.

natural pain relievers

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GABA(gamma-aminobutyric acid)

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The major inhibitory neurotransmitter in thebrain. A lack of GABA can lead to involuntary motoractions, including tremors and seizures. Alcohol stimulates the release ofGABA, which inhibits the nervous system and makes us feel drunk. Low levels ofGABA can produce anxiety, and GABA agonists (tranquilizers) are used to reduceanxiety.

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Glutamate

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The most common neurotransmitter, it’s releasedin more than 90% of the brain’s synapses. Glutamate is found in the foodadditive MSG (monosodium glutamate).

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Serotonin

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Involved in many functions, including mood,appetite, sleep, and aggression.

Low levels of serotonin are associated withdepression

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Brain stem

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the oldest and innermost region of the brain;controls the most basic functions for life, including breathing, attention, andmotor responses

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Medulla

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the area of the brain stem that controls heartrate and breathing

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Pons

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a structure in the brain stem that helps controlthe movements of the body, playing a particularly important role in balancingand walking

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Reticularformation

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filters out some of the stimuli that are cominginto the brain form the spinal cord and relay the remained of the signals toother areas of the brain

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Thalamus

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the egg-shaped structure sitting just above thebrain stem that applies still more filtering to the sensory information comingfrom the spinal cord and through the reticular formation, and it relays some ofthese remaining signals to the higher brain levels

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Cerebellum

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consists of two wrinkled ovals behind the brainstem. Coordinates voluntary movement

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Limibic system

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largely responsible for memory and emotions,including our responses to reward and punishment

Locatedbeneath and around the thalamus

Includesthe amygdala, the hypothalamus, and the hippocampus

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Amygdala

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two almond-shaped clusters and is primarilyresponsible for regulating our perceptions of and reactions to aggression andfear

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Hypothalamus

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Helpsregulate body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sex drive and responds to thesatisfaction of these needs by creating feelings of pleasure

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Hippocampus

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consists of two “horns” that curve back form theamygdala. Importantin storing information in long-term memory

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Glial cells

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cells that surround and link to the neurons,protecting them, providing them with nutrients, and absorbing unusedneurotransmitters.

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Contralateral control

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the setup wherein the motor cortex of both cerebral hemispheres are primarily accountable for handling of motions of the opposite side of one's body.

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Motor cortex

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the part of the cortex that controls andexecutes movements of the body by sending signals to the cerebellum and thespinal cord

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Somatosensory cortex

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receives information form different parts of thebody, namely the skin’s sensory receptors as well as from the movement of bodyparts

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Visual cortex

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the area located in the occipital lobe, processesvisual information

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Auditory cortex

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responsible for hearing and language

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Cadaver

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A cadaver, also called a corpse in medical literary and legal usage or when intended for dissection, is a deceased human body

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Lesion

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damage to the brains of living human beings

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Electroencephalograph (EEG)

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an instrument that records the electricalactivity produced by the brain’s neurons through the use of electrodes placedon the surface of the research participants head

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Positron emission tomography (PET)

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an invasive imaging technique that provides color-codedimages of the brain activity by tracking the brain’s use of a radioactivelytagged compound, such as glucose, oxygen, or a drug that has been injected intoa persons bloodstream

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Functional magnetic resonance imaging(fMRI)

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a type of brain scan that uses a magnetic fieldto create images of the brain activity in each brain area

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Transcranialmagnetic stimulation (TMS)

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procedure in which magnetic pules are applied tothe brain of living person with the goal of temporarily and safely deactivatinga small brain region

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Centralnervous system (CNS)

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the major controller of the body’s functions,charged with interpreting sensory information and responding to it with its owndirectives

the brain and spinal cord

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Peripheralnervous system (PNS)

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links the CNS to the body’s sense receptors,muscles and glands.

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Autonomicnervous system (ANS)

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division of the PNS that governs the internalactivities of the human body including heart rate, breathing, digestion,salivation, perspiration, urination, and sexual arousal.

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Somaticnervous system (SNS)

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division of the PNS that controls the externalaspects of the body, including the skeletal muscles, skin, and sense organs.

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Sympatheticdivision of the ANS

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involved in preparing the body for rapid actionin response to stress form threats or emergencies by activating organs andglans in the endocrine system

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Parasympatheticdivision of the ANS

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tends to calm the body by slowing the heart andbreathing and by allowing the body to recover form the activates that thesympathetic system causes

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Memory

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our capacity to acquire, store, and retrieve theinformation and habits that guide our behavior

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Explicit memory

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knowledge or experiences that can be consciouslyand intentionally remembered

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Episodic memory

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refers to first hand experiences or episodesthat we have on a daily basis (e.g. recollections of our HS graduation day)

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Semantic memory

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our knowledge of facts and concepts about theworld (e.g. definition of the word affect is “The experience of feeling oremotion”)

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Recall test

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a measure of explicit memory that involvesretrieving information that has been previously learned

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Recognitionmemory test

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a measure of memory that involves determiningwhether information has been seen or learned before

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Relearning (orsavings)

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asses how much more quickly information isprocessed or learned when it is studied again after it has already been learnedbut then forgotten

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Implicit memory

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the influence of experience on behavior, even ifthe individual is not aware of those influences

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Proceduralmemory

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our often unexplainable knowledge of how to dothings

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Classicalconditioning effects

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welearn, often without effort or awareness, to associate neutral stimuli (such asa sound or light) with another stimulus (such as food), which creates anaturally occurring response, such as enjoyment or salivation

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Priming

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changes in behavior as a result of experiences that have happened frequently orrecently

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Sensory memory

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the brief storage of sensory information

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Iconic memory

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visual sensory memory

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Echoic memory

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auditory sensory memory

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Eidetic imagery(or “photographic memory”)

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people can report details of an image over longperiods of time

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Short-termmemory (STM)

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the place where small amounts of information canbe temporarily kept for more than a few seconds but usually for less than oneminute

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Working memory

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the processes that we use to make sense of,modify, interpret, and store information in STM

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Maintenancerehearsal

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the process of repeating information mentally orout loud with the goal of keeping it in memory

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Chunking

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the process of organizing information intosmaller groupings (chunks), thereby increasing the number of items that can beheld in the STM

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Encoding

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the process by which we place our experiencesinto memory

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Elaborativeencoding

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we process new information in ways that make itmore relevant or meaningful

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Spacing effect

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the fact that learning is better when the sameamount of study is spread out over periods of time than it is when it occurscloser together or at the same time

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Overlearning

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continuing to practice and study even when wethink that we have mastered the material

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Retrieval

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the process of reactivating information that hasbeen stored in memory

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Tip-of-the-tongue(TOT) phenomenon

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we are certain that we know something that weare trying to recall nut cannot quite come up with

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Context-dependentlearning

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an increase in retrieval when the externalsituation in which information is learned matches the solution in which it isremembered

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State-dependentlearning

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superior retrieval of memories when theindividual is in the same physiological or psychological state as duringencoding

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Primacy effect

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a tendency to better remember stimuli that arepresented early in a list

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Recency effect

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the tendency to better remember stimuli that arepresented later in a list

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Serial positioneffect

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the tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series best, and the middle items worst.

Front 115

Retroactiveinterference

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occurs when learning something new impairs ourability to retrieve information that was learned earlier

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Proactiveinterference

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occurs when earlier learning impairs our abilityto encode information that we try to learn later

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Sourcemonitoring

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the ability to accurately identify the source ofa memory

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Misinformationeffect

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errors in memory that occur when new informationinfluences existing memories

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Schemas

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mental representations of the world that areformed and adjusted using the processes of assimilation and accommodation as aperson experiences life

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Learning

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as the process leading to relatively permanent behavioral change or potential behavioral change.

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Classical Conditioning

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learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus(e.g., tone) becomes associated with a stimulus (e.g., food) that neutrallyproduces a specific behavior

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Unconditioned stimulus (US)

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something (such as food) that triggers a naturaloccurring response

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Unconditioned response (UR)

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the naturally occurring response (such assalivation) that follows the unconditioned stimulus

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Conditioned stimulus (CS)

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a neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedlypresented prior to the unconditioned stimulus, evokes a response similar to theresponse to the unconditioned stimulus

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Extinction

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the reduction in responding that occurs when theconditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus

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Spontaneous recovery

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the increase in responding to the CS following apause after extinction

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Generalization

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the tendency to respond to stimuli that resemblethe original conditioned stimulus

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Discrimination

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the tendency to respond differently to stimulithat are similar but not identical

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Second-order conditioning

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an existing conditioned stimulus can serve as anunconditioned stimulus for pairing with a new conditioned stimulus

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Phobia

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a strong irrational fear of a specific object,activity, or situation.

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Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

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a severe anxiety disorder that can develop afterexposure to a fearful even such as the threat of death

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Operant conditioning

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learning that occurs on the bases of theconsequences of behavior and can involve the learning of new behaviors.

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Reinforcer

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any event that strengthens or increases thelikelihood of a behavior

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Punisher

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any event that weakens or decreases thelikelihood of a behavior

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Positive punishment

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present or add an unpleasant stimulus

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Negative punishment

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reduce or remove a pleasant stimulus

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Continuous reinforcement schedule

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the desired response is reinforced every time itoccurs

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Partial (or intermittent) reinforcement schedule

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a schedule in which the responses are sometimesreinforced and sometimes

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Fixed-interval schedule

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Behavior is reinforced for the first responseafter a specific amount of time has passed

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Variable-interval schedule

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Behavior is reinforced for the first responseafter an average, but unpredictable amount of time has passed

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Shaping

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the guiding of an organism’s behavior to thedesired outcome through the use of successive approximation to a final desiredbehavior

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Primary reinforcer

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stimuli that are naturally preferred or enjoyedby the organism, such as food, water, and relief from pain

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Secondary reinforcer (sometimes called conditionedreinforcer)

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a neutral event that has become associated witha primary renforcer through classical conditioning

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Intelligence

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a mental ability consisting of the ability tolearn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to newsituations.

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Crystallizedintelligence

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the accumulation knowledge of the world we haveacquired throughout our lives

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Fluidintelligence

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the capacity to learn new ways of solvingproblems and preforming activities

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Generalintelligence

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the construct that the different abilities andskills measured o intelligence test have in common

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Specificintelligence

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a measure of specific skills in narrow domains

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Gardner’s EightSpecific Intelligences

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The idea of multiple intelligences is important because it allows for educators to identify differing strengths and weaknesses in students and also contradicts the idea that intelligence can be measured through IQ.

Visual/Spatial; Verbal/Linguistic; Logical/Mathematical; Bodily/Kinesthetic; Musical; Interpersonal; Intrapersonal; Naturalist

Front 150

Standardization

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involves giving it to a large number of peopleat different ages and computing the average score on the test at each agelevel.

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Randomselection

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an aspect of experimental design in which study participants are assigned to the treatment or control group using a random procedure.

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Mental age

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the level of native mental ability or capacity of an individual, usually as determined by an intelligence test, in relation to the chronological age of the average individual at this level

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Chronologicalage

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the number of years a person has lived, especially when used as a standard against which to measure behavior, intelligence, etc.

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IntelligenceQuotient

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a measure of intelligence that is adjusted forage

IQ=mental age ÷ chronological age × 100

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WAIS-IV

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is a battery of tests that provides an estimate of general intellectual functioning.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition

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Reliability

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when a person is assessed at different times onthe test, the person will score approximately the same every time with morethan a 95% accuracy rate

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Validity

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correlated highly with other IQ tests; thedegree to which a test or other measure of some psychological constructactually measures that construct

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Standarddeviation

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is a measure that is used to quantify the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of data values.

breaking the bell curve into units

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The normaldistribution

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pattern of scores from different tests peopletake; shows how many people have each score on the IQ scale or the scale forany other test or measure

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Frequencydistribution

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how frequently each score appears on the graph

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Distribution

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the group of people

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Bell curve

Back 162

a graph of a normal (Gaussian) distribution, with a large rounded peak tapering away at each end.

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Achievement

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what one has already learned

Front 164

Aptitude

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an ability to learn

Front 165

Aptitude tests

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measure one’s ability to do well in college orin postgraduate training

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Personnelselection test

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the use of structured test to select people whoare likely to preform well at a given job

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Emotional intelligence

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the ability to accurately identify, assess, andunderstand emotions, as well as to effectively control one’s own emotions

Front 168

Stereotype threat

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performance decrements that are caused by theknowledge of cultural stereotypes

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Developmental psychology

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concerns the physiological, behavioral,cognitive, and social changes that occur throughout human life, which areguided by both genetic predispositions (nature) and environmental influences(nurture).

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Erik Erikson’s Framework for Development

Back 170

Birth to 18 months: trust vs mistrust

18 months to 3 years: Autonomy versusshame/doubt

3 to 6 years: Initiative versus guilt

6 to 12 years: Industry versus inferiority

12 to 18 years: Identity versus role confusion

19 to 40 years: Intimacy versus isolation

40 to 65 years: Generativityversus stagnation

65 to death: Ego integrity versus despair

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Zygote

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which starts as a fertilized egg, or ovum, withthe full complement of 23 pairs of chromosomes

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Embryo

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when the zygote attaches to the wall of theuterus

Internalorgans are formed

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Fetus

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in the 9th week after conception, the embryobecomes a fetus.

Sensesare developed

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Teratogens

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substances that can harm the fetus

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Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

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a condition caused by maternal alcohol drinkingthat can lead to numerous detrimental developmental effects, including limb andfacial abnormalities, genital anomalies, and mental retardation.

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Piaget’s theory

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a comprehensive theory about the nature and development of human intelligence. Piaget believed that one's childhood plays a vital and active role in a person's development [1] Piaget's idea is primarily known as a developmental stage theory.

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Schemas

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patterns of knowledge in long-term memory

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Assimilation

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they use already developed schemas to understandnew information.

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Accommodation

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involves learning new information, and thuschanging the schema.

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Sensorimotor stage

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thecognitive stage that begins at birth and lasts until around the age of 2. It isdefined by the direct physical interactions that babies have with the objectsaround them.

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Objectpermanence

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torefer to the child’s ability to know that an object exists even when the objectcannot be perceived.

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Preoperational stage

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childrenbegin to use language and to think more abstractly about objects, but theirunderstanding is more intuitive and without much ability to deduce or reason.

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Theory of mind

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the ability to takeanother person’s viewpoint

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Concrete operational stage

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more frequent and more accurate use oftransitions, operations, and abstract concepts, including those of time, space,and numbers.

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Conservation

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the understandingthat changes in the form of an object do not necessarily mean changes in thequantity of the object.

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Formal operational stage

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the ability to think in abstract terms and touse scientific and philosophical lines of thought

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Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

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· our mental processes are actions that are internalized, which means they takeplace symbolically in our minds.

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Internalized

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· they take place symbolically in our minds.

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Scaffolding

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caregivers can support the child to achievehigher cognitive levels by providing support and guidance.

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Zone of proximal development

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describe abilities that a child is juststarting to be able to use.

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Self-awareness

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is the realization that he or she is a distinctindividual, whose body, mind and actions are separate from those of otherpeople.

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Self-concept

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is a knowledge representation or schema thatcontains knowledge about ourselves, including our beliefs about our personalitytraits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals, and roles, as wellas the knowledge that we exist as individuals.

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Attachment

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The emotional bonds we develop with those withwhom we feel closest, and particularly the bonds an infant develops with themother or primary caregiver

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Secure attachment style

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usually explores freely while the mother ispresent and engages with the stranger

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Ambivalent (sometimes called insecure-resistant) attachment style

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is wary about the situation in general,particularly the stranger, and stays close or even clings to the mother ratherthan exploring the toys.

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Avoidant (sometimes called insecure-avoidant) attachment style

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will avoid or ignore the mother, showing littleemotion when the mother departs or returns.

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Disorganized attachment style

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seems to have no consistent way of coping withthe stress of the strange situation—the child may cry during the separation butavoid the mother when she returns, or the child may approach the mother butthen freeze or fall to the floor.

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Authoritarian parents

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parents are demanding but not responsive

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Permissive parents

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tend to make few demands and give little punishment,but they are responsive in the sense that they generally allow their childrento make their own rules.

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Authoritative parents

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parents are demanding, but they are also responsive to the needsand opinions of the child

Front 201

Rejecting-neglecting parents

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parents are undemanding and unresponsiveoverall.

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Adolescence

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the years between the onset of puberty and thebeginning of adulthood.

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Puberty

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a developmental period in which hormonal changescause rapid physical alterations in the body, culminating in sexual maturity

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Primary sex characteristics

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the sex organs concerned with reproduction.

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Secondary sex characteristics

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(features that distinguish the two sexes fromeach other but are not involved in reproduction), such as an enlarged Adam’sapple, a deeper voice, and pubic and underarm hair in boys and growing breasts,widening hips, and pubic and underarm hair in girls,

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Menarche

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the first menstrual period, typicallyexperienced at around 12 or 13 years of age.

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Spermarche

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which is the beginning of sperm development inboys' testicles.

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Prefrontal cortex

Back 208

the area of the brain responsible for reasoning,planning, and problem solving

Front 209

Myelin

Back 209

the fatty tissue that forms around axons andneurons and helps speed transmissions between different regions of the brain,also continues to grow.

Front 210

Egocentrism

Back 210

in which adolescents believe that they can doanything and that they know better than anyone else, including their parents.

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Personal fable

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is a belief held by many adolescents telling them that they are special and unique, so much so that none of life's difficulties or problems will affect them regardless of their behavior.

Front 212

Imaginary audience

Back 212

Teenagers are likely to be highly self-conscious: they feel that everyone is constantlywatching them.

Front 213

Role experimentation

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Erikson believed that it was normative foradolescents to “try on” different roles to determine what their identity wouldbecome. He termed this search for identity

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Identity-diffusionstatus

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Theindividual does not have firm commitments regarding the issues in question andis not making progress toward them.

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Foreclosurestatus

Back 215

The individual has not engaged in any identityexperimentation and has established an identity based on the choices or valuesof others.

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Moratoriumstatus

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The individual is exploring various choices buthas not yet made a clear commitment to any of them.

Front 217

Identity-achievementstatus

Back 217

The individual has attained a coherent andcommitted identity based on personal decisions

Front 218

Kohlberg’s stages of MoralDevelopment

Back 218

· as children develop intellectually, they passthrough three stages of moral thinking: the preconventional level, theconventional level, and the postconventional level.

Front 219

Preconventional level

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Until about age 9, children focus onself-interest. At this stage, punishment is avoided and rewards are sought.

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Conventional level

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At this developmental phase, people are able tovalue the good that can be derived from holding to social norms in the form oflaws or less formalized rules

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Postconventional level

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At this stage, individuals employ abstractreasoning to justify behaviors. Moral behavior is based on self-chosen ethicalprinciples that are generally comprehensive and universal, such as justice,dignity, and equality.

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Alzheimer’s disease

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is a form of dementia that, over a period ofyears, leads to a loss of emotions, cognitions, and physical functioning, andthat is ultimately fatal.

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Kubler-Ross’s Five stages of grief (denial, anger,bargaining, depression, acceptance)

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five phases of grief through which people passin grappling with the knowledge that they or someone close to them is dying:

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Parenting Styles

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parental behaviors that determine the nature ofparent–child interactions and that guide their interaction with the child.

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Emotion regulation

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the ability to control and productively useone’s emotions.

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Affect

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as the experience of feeling or emotion. Affectis an essential part of the study of psychology because it plays such animportant role in everyday life.

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Emotion

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is a mental and physiological feeling state thatdirects our attention and guides our behavior.

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Motivation

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is a driving force that initiates and directsbehavior.

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Cannon-Bard theory

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If you experience the fear and arousal at the sametime—heart pounding and the fear

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James-Lange theory

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our experience of an emotion is the result ofthe arousal that we experience.

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Schachter and Singer’s two-factor theory

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The two-factor theory of emotion argues that thearousal that we experience is basically the same in every emotion, and that allemotions (including the basic emotions) are differentiated only by ourcognitive appraisal of the source of the arousal.

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Excitation transfer

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refers to the influence of a prior episode of arousal on subsequent emotional responses. In the absence of any environmental cues as to the actual source of arousal, residual arousal can be misattributed to a subsequent stimulus.

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Basic emotions

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are those of anger, disgust, fear, happiness,sadness, and surprise (and some psychologists also include contempt).

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Cognitive appraisal

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The cognitive interpretations that accompanyemotions

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Facial feedback hypothesis

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proposes that the movement of our facial musclescan trigger corresponding emotions.

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Affective forecasting

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s the prediction of one's affect (emotional state) in the future.

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Drives

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which are internal states that are activatedwhen the physiological characteristics of the body are out of balance

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Goals

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which are desired end states that we strive toattain.

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Homeostasis

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the natural state of the body’s systems, withgoals, drives, and arousal in balance.

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Intrinsically motivated

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works because they enjoy the task, they believethe task is important and they desire to do a good job

resideswithin the individual

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Extrinsically motivated

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works because they are getting a reward such asmoney or praise.

existsoutside the person

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Testosterone(an androgen)

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is the main hormone responsible for arousal.

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Oxytocin

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is another hormone that has received a lot ofattention. Sometimes called the love hormone, it promotes closeness andbonding. Levels increase when we are engaging in sexual activity

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Hyperactivesexual desire disorder

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For about 3% to 6% of the population (mainly men),the sex drive is so strong that itdominates life experience

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Sexualorientation

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which is the direction of our sexual desiretoward people of the opposite sex, people of the same sex, or people of bothsexes.

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Social psychology

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the scientific study of how we feel about, thinkabout, and behave toward the other people around us, and how those peopleinfluence our thoughts, feelings, and behavior.

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Social cognition

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the part of human thinking that helps usunderstand and predict the behavior of ourselves and others

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Social norms

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the accepted beliefs about what we do or what weshould do in particular social situations

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Attitudes

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our enduring evaluations of people orthings—influence, and are influenced by, our behavior

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Stereotyping

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the tendency to attribute personalitycharacteristics to people on the basis of their external appearance or theirsocial group memberships

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Prejudice

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the tendency to dislike people because of theirappearance or group memberships

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Discrimination

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negative behaviors toward others based onprejudice.

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Self-fulfilling prophecy

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is when our expectations about the personalitycharacteristics of others lead us to behave in ways that make those beliefscome true.

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Stereotype threat

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a situational predicament in which people are or feel themselves to be at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their social group.

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Close relationships

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are the long-term intimate and romanticrelationships that we develop with another person—for instance, in a marriage .

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Interpersonal attraction

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what makes people like, and even love, eachother.

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Self-disclosure

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the tendency to communicate frequently, withoutfear of reprisal, and in an accepting and empathetic manner.

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Proximity

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the extent to which people are physically nearus.

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Mere exposure

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the tendency to prefer stimuli (including butnot limited to people) that we have seen more frequently

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Commitment

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the feelings and actions that keep partnersworking together to maintain the relationship and is characterized by mutualexpectations that the self and the partner will be responsive to each other’sneeds.

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Causal attribution

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The process of trying to determine the causes ofpeople’s behavior, with the goal of learning about their personalities

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Dispositional attribution

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Sometimes we may decide that the source or causeof the behavior was due to characteristics that reside within the individual

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Situational attribution

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we may determine that the behavior was causedprimarily by the situation

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Self-serving attribution

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judging the causes of our own behaviors inoverly positive ways.

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Fundamental attribution error (or correspondence bias)

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The common tendency to overestimate the role ofdispositional factors and overlook the impact of situations in judging others

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Attitude

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refers to our relatively enduring evaluations ofpeople and things

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Self-perception

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occurs when we use our own behavior as a guideto help us determine our own thoughts and feelings

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Cognitive dissonance

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refers to the discomfort we experience when wechoose to behave in ways that we see as inappropriate

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Conformity

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a change in beliefs or behavior that occurs asthe result of the presence of the other people around us.

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Obedience

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The tendency to conform to those in authority

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Dehumanization

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is the psychological process of demonizing the enemy, making them seem less than human and hence not worthy of humane treatment. This can lead to increased violence, human rights violations, war crimes, and genocide.

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Minority influence

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a smaller number of individuals is able toinfluence the opinions or behaviors of the larger group

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Social facilitation

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The tendency to perform tasks better or fasterin the presence of others

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Social inhibition

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The tendency to perform tasks more poorly ormore slowly in the presence of others

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Group process

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the events that occur while the group is workingon the task.

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Social loafing

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a group process loss that occurs when people donot work as hard in a group as they do when they are working alone.

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Groupthink

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is a phenomenon that occurs when a group made upof members who may be very competent and thus quite capable of making excellentdecisions nevertheless ends up, as a result of a flawed group process andstrong conformity pressures, making a poor decision.

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Abnormal psychology

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Applying psychological science to ourunderstanding and treatment of psychological disorders

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Prevalence

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the frequency of occurrence of a given conditionin a population at a given time

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Comorbidity

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the simultaneous presence of two chronic diseases or conditions in a patient.

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Psychological disorder

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is an ongoing dysfunctional pattern of thought,emotion, and behavior that causes significant distress, and that is considereddeviant in that person’s culture or society

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Bio-psycho-social model of illness

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is a way of understanding disorder that assumesthat disorders are caused by biological, psychological, and social factors

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Biological component

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of the bio-psycho-social model refers to theinfluences on disorder that come from the functioning of the individual’s body.

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Psychological component

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of the bio-psycho-social model refers to theinfluences that come from the individual, such as patterns of negative thinkingand stress responses

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Social component

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of the bio-psycho-social model refers to theinfluences on disorder due to social and cultural factors such as socioeconomicstatus, homelessness, abuse, and discrimination

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Stigma

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refers to a disgrace or defect that indicatesthat person belongs to a culturally devalued social group

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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of MentalDisorders (DSM)

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The DSM is an ever revised handbook that clearlyand concisely provides standard criteria for the classification of mentaldisorders.

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Anxiety disorders

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· which are psychological disturbances marked byirrational fears, often of everyday objects and situations.

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Anxiety

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the nervousness or agitation that we sometimesexperience, often about something that is going to happen, is a natural part oflife.

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Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

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a psychological disorder diagnosed in situationsin which a person has been excessively worrying about money, health, work,family life and/or relationships for at least 6 months and when the anxietycauses significant distress and dysfunction.

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Panic disorder

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a psychological disorder characterized by suddenand recurrent panic attacks that reaches a peak within minutes.

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Phobia

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is a specific fear of a certain object,situation, or activity.

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Agoraphobia

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Marked fear or anxiety about a specific objector situation

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Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

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is a psychological disorder that is diagnosedwhen an individual continuously experiences obsessions (distressing, intrusive,or frightening thoughts), and engages in compulsions (repetitive behaviors ormental acts) in an attempt to calm these obsessions.

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Post-traumatic stress disorder

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A mental health condition triggered by experiencing or seeing a terrifying event.

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Mood

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the positive or negative feelings that are inthe background of our everyday experiences.

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Mood (or affective) disorders

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are psychological disorders in which theperson’s mood negatively influences his or her physical, perceptual, social,and cognitive processes.

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Dysthymia

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a condition characterized by mild, but chronic,depressive symptoms that last for at least 2 years

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Major depressive disorder (clinical depression)

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is a mental disorder characterized by anall-encompassing low mood accompanied by low self-esteem and by loss ofinterest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities.

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Bipolar disorder

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is a psychological disorder characterized byswings in mood from overly “high” to sad and hopeless, and back again, withperiods of near-normal mood in between.

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Schizophrenia

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is a serious psychological disorder marked bydelusions, hallucinations, loss of contact with reality, inappropriate affect,disorganized speech, social withdrawal, and deterioration of adaptive behavior.

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Psychosis

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a psychological condition characterized by aloss of contact with reality.

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Hallucinations

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false sensations that occur in the absence of areal stimulus or which are gross distortions of a real stimulus

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Delusions

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which are false beliefs not commonly shared byothers within one’s culture, and maintained even though they are obviously outof touch with reality.

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Autistic disorder (autism)

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· a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized bypersistent deficits in social interaction and communication across differentlife settings (e.g., home, school) and by restricted and repetitive behavior,interests or activities, and in which symptoms begin during early childhood.