Psyc 1010 Midterm 1

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What is psychology?

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the study of the mind

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Aristotle's theory of memory

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3 principles of association: similarity, contrast, and contiguity

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Wilhelm Wundt

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"Father of psychology"

wanted to make psychology an independent discipline

founded the first psychology laboratory

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G. Stanley Hall

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important in the growth of psychology

created the American Psychological Association

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Behaviourism

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founded by John B. Watson

based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behaviour

argued against nature vs. nurture

psychology's mission to be 'overt behaviours (responses) to observable events in the environment (stimuli)

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Freud

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the unconscious contains thoughts, memories and desires that are below the surface of conscious awareness but exert influence on behaviour

concluded that psychological disturbances caused by personal conflicts

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Skinner

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influenced by Watson' behaviourism and Pavlov

radical behaviourism

tend to repeat responses that lead to positive outcomes

"free will is an illusion"

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Humanism

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theoretical orientation emphasizes unique qualities of humans, their freedom and potential for personal growth

human behaviour isn't based on animal heritage or environmental circumstances, but each individuals sense of self

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Scientific Approach

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Step 1: translate theory into testable hypothesis

Step 2: select research method and design study

Step 3: collect data

Step 4: use statistics to analyze data and decide whether hypothesis is supported

Step 5: report findings/publication of research results

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Advantages of Scientific Approach

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clarity and precision

requires people to specify exactly what they are talking about

more accurate and dependable

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Independent Variable

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condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable

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Dependent Variable

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variable that is thought to be affected by manipulation of independent variable

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Experimental Group

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consists of subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable

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Control Group

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consists of similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group

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Extraneous Variable

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variable other than the independent variable that seems likely to influence the dependent variable

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Confounding of Variables

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occurs when two variables are linked together in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects

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Variations in designing experiments

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- can be advantageous to only use one group of subjects who serve as their own control group -used as experimental and control group

- manipulate more than one independent variable in a single experiment

- use more than one dependent variable in a single study

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Correlational/Descriptive Research

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- Naturalistic Observation: researcher engages in careful observation of behaviour without intervening directly

- Case Studies: in-depth investigation of an individual subject, provides real-life illustrations however can be subjective

- Survey: obtain information on aspects of behaviour which is difficult to observe directly however is dependent of self-report data

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Advantages/Disadvantages of correlational research

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- a way to explore questions that could not be examined with experimental procedures

- broadens scope psychologists are able to study

- cannot control events to isolate cause and effect

- cannot demonstrate conclusively that two variables are casually related

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Central Tendency

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researchers want to know what constitutes an average score

- Median: centre of distribution of scores

- Mean: arithmetic average

- Mode: most frequent score

* mean is most useful

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Correlation

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exists when two variables are related to each other

Correlation Coefficient: numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables

- positive correlation: Same direction, high score on 'x' are associated with high scores on 'y'

- negative correlation: Opposite direction, high scores on 'x' are associated with low scores on 'y'

- Strength: relies on size of coefficient, near 0 means NO relationship, closer to +1.00 or -1.00 means strong relationship

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Sampling Bias

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exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn

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Neurons

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cells in nervous system

receive, integrate and transmit information

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parts of neuron

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- Soma: cell body contains nucleus

- dendrites: receive information

- axon: transmits signals away from soma to other neurons or muscles or glands

- myelin sheath: insulating material that encases some axons

- terminal buttons: small knobs that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters

- synapse: junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another

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Glia Cells

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found throughout nervous system that provide support for neurons

- smaller than neurons but outnumber them

- supply nourishment, help remove neuron's waste products and provie insulation around axons

- myelin sheath are made up of them

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Neurotransmitters

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- specific n work at specific kinds of synapses

- transmitter has to fit into receptor site for binding to occur

- an agonist mimics actions of neurotransmitter

- an antagonist opposes actions of neurotransmitter

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Acetylcholine

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- activates motor neurons controlling skeletal muscles

- contributes to regulation of attention, arousal and memory

- some are stimulated by nicotine

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Dopamine

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- contributes to control of voluntary movement, pleasurable emotions

- decreased levels associated with Parkinson's

- overactivity at receptors associated with schizophrenia

- cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity at synapses

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Central Nervous System

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- consists of brain and spinal cord

- cerebrospinal fluid (CFS) nourishes the brain and provides a protective cushion for it

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Spinal Cord

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- connects the brain to the rest of the body through periphery nervous system

- enclosed by meninges

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Brain

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- contains billions of interacting cells

- integrate information from inside and outside the body, coordinate body's actions etc.

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Peripheral Nervous System

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- made up of nerves outside the brain and spinal cord

- subdivided into two systems:

* Somatic Nervous System

* Autonomic Nervous System

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Somatic Nervous System

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Nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and sensory receptors. Carry information from receptors to CNS. Require afferent and efferent nerves

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Autonomic Nervous System

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Nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles and glands. Controls automatic, involuntary functions, ie. heart rate, digestion, perspiration. Subdivided into two branches:

- Sympathetic: mobilizes the body's resources for emergencies. Fight-or-flight

- Parasympathetic: conserves bodily resources, activates processes that allow the body to save and store energy

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Hindbrain

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- includes cerebellum, medulla, and pons

- Medulla: in charge of unconscious but vital functions like circulating blood, breathing

- Pons: connect brainstem with cerebellum

- Cerebellum: critical to coordination and sense of equilibrium

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Midbrain

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- segment of brainstem that lies between the hindbrain and forebrain

- area concerned with integrating sensory processes such as vision and hearing

- Reticular Formation: modulation of muscle reflexes, breathing and pain perception

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Forebrain

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- largest and most complex

- includes thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum

- Thalamus: all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get to cerebral cortex

- Hypothalamus: regulation of biological needs, controls autonomic nervous system, 4 F's (fighting, fleeing, feeding, mating)

- Limbic System: not well-defined part, involved in regulation of emotion, memory and motivation

- Amygdala: emotion

- Hippocampus: memory

- Cerebrum: largest and most complex, divided into two hemispheres which are divided into 4 lobes

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Cerebrum

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- Occipital Lobe: most visual signals are sent and visual processing is begun

- Temporal Lobe: where auditory processing occurs

- Parietal Lobe: registers the sense of touch

- Frontal Lobe: contains principle areas that control movement of muscles

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Endocrine System

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glands that release hormones into bloodstream. Neural messages are transmitted short distances with lightening speed along specific pathways whereas, hormonal messages often travel to distant cells at a slower speed and tend to be less specific

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Sensation

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stimulation of sense organs

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Perception

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selection, organization and interpretation of sensory input

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Sense of Sight

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- Amplitude: affects perception of brightness

- Wavelength: affects mainly perception of colour

- Purity: how varied the mix of several wavelengths are

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Structures of the eye

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Cornea: light enters through this "window"

Lens: focuses light rays on retina

- makes adjustments to accomodate

- focus on a close object, lens fattens

- focus of far object, lens flattens

Pupil: opening in center of iris, regulates amount of light entering

Retina: processes images and sends visual information to brain

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Retina

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Cones: daylight vision and colour vision

- sharpness and detail

- concentrated in centre of retina at fovea

Rods: night vision and peripheral vision

- more sensitive to dim light

- greatly outnumber cones

Optic Disk: a hole in the retina where axons going to brain converge creating blindspot

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Bottom Up Processing

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Progression from individual elements to the whole. *Sensation*

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Top Down Processing

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Progression from the whole to the elements. *Perception*

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Perceptual Organization

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Visual Capture: sight has preeminence over other senses

Gestalt Principles: demonstrated the whole can be greater than the sum of its parts

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Gestalt Principles

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- Figure and Ground: dividing visual displays into figure(thing being looked at) and ground (background)

- Proximity: things that are close to one another seem to belong together

- Closure: often group elements to create a sense of closure or completeness

- Similarity: tend to group stimuli that are similar

- Simplicity: people tend to group elements that combine to form a good figure

- Continuity: people's tendency to follow in whatever direction they've been led

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Depth Perception

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Binocular Cues: clues are about distance based on differing views of the two eyes

- Retinal Disparity: objects project images to slightly different locations on right and left retinas so they see slightly different views of the object

- Convergence: sensing eyes converging toward each other as they focus on closer objects

Monocular Cues: clues about distance based on the image in either eye alone

- Motion Parallax: images at different distances moving across the retina at different rates

- Pictorial Cues: clues about distance that can be given in a flat picture

- Linear Perspective, Texture gradients, interposition, relative size, height in plane, light and shadow

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Norepinephrine

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- contributes to modulation of mood and arousal

- cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity at NE synapses

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Serotonin

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- involved in regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating and aggression

- abnormal levels may contribute to depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder

- prozac and similar antidepressant drugs affect serotonin circuits

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GABA

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- serves as widely distributed inhibitory transmitter

- valium and similar anti-anxiety drugs work at GABA synapses

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Endorphins

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- resemble opiate drugs in structure and effects

- contribute to pain relief and perhaps to some pleasurable emotions

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Glutamate

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- an amino acid that has both excitatory and inhibitory effects

- implicated in learning and memory

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Developmental

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human development across the life span, once focused primarily on child development but today devotes a great deal of research to adolescence, adulthood and old age.

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Social

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interpersonal behaviour and the role of social forces in governing behaviour. Topics include attitude formation, attitude change, prejudice, conformity, attraction, aggression, intimate relationships and behavioural groups

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Educational

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studies how people learn and the best ways to teach them. Examines curriculum design, teacher training, achievement testing, student motivation, classroom diversity and other aspects of the educational process.

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Health

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Focuses on how psychological factors relate to the promotion and maintenance of physical health and the causation, prevention and treatment of illness

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Physiological

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Examines the influence of genetic factors on behaviour and the role of the brain, nervous system, endocrine system and bodily chemicals in the regulation of behaviour

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Experimental

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Traditional core topics of psychology; sensation, perception, learning, conditioning, motivation, and emotion. Not only area where experiments occur

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Cognitive

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Focuses on "higher" mental processes such as memory, reasoning, information processing, language, problem solving, decision making and creativity

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Psychometrics

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Measurement of behaviour and capacities, usually through development of psychology tests. Involved with design of tests to assess personality, intelligence, and wide range of abilities

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Personality

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Describing and understanding individuals' consistency in behaviour, which represents their personality. Concerned with factors that shape personality and personality assessment

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Theoretical Perspectives

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- Biological: how physiology affects thought and behaviours

- Cognitive: how your mind (conscious thoughts) influence behaviour

- Psychodynamic: how the unconscious influences behaviour

- Behavioural: how the environment shapes behaviour

- Humanistic: freedom of choice and actualization of the self as determinants of behaviour

- Evolutionary: how the behaviour initially solved an adaptive problem and increased chance of reproductive success

- Positive Psychology: uses theory and research to better understand well-being and positive human qualities

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Language (brain)

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Broca's Area: Speech production, usually left hemisphere

Wernicke's Area: language comprehension

*usually left hemishpere