Psyc 001 Midterm 3

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learning

Back 1

A relatively enduring change in behavior, resulting from experience

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Pavlov's Apparatus and Classical Conditioning

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Ivan Pavlov, (canine subjects), conducted groundbreaking work on classical conditioning. Pavlov's apparatus collected and measured a dog's saliva.

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classical conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning)

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A type of learned response; a neutral object comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces that response

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Unconditioned Response (UR)

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A response that does not have to be leaned, such as a reflex.

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Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

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A stimulus that elicits a response, such as a reflex, without any prior learning.

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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

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A stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place

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Conditioned Response (CR)

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A response to a conditioned stimulus; a response that has to be learned.

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acquisition

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The gradual formation of an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.

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exctinction

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A process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus.

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spontaneous recovery

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a process in which a previously extinguished response reemerges after the presentation of the conditioned stimulus.

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stimulus generalization

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learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response

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stimulus discrimination

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a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus.

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phobia

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an acquired fear that is out of proportion to the real threat of an object or of a situation.

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Rescorla-Wagner model

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a cognitive model of classical conditioning; it states that the strength of the CS-US association is determined by the extent to which the unconditioned stimulus is unexpected or surprising.

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orienting response

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when you encounter a novel stimulus, you pay attention to it. (unexpected appearance of US will cause you to pay attention to events in the environment that might have produced the food.

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blocking effect

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once a conditioned stimulus is learned, it can prevent the acquisition of a new conditioned stimulus.

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orienting responses

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a stimulus associated with the CS that can act as a trigger to look for the CS.

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operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning)

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a learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed in the future.

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Law of effect

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Thorndike's general theory of learning: any behavior that leads to a "satisfying state of affairs" is more likely to occur again, and any behavior that leads to an "annoying state of affairs" is less likely to occur again.

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reinforcer

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a stimulus that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated.

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Shaping

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Shaping, an operant conditioning technique, consists of reinforcing behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior (selective approximations). This technique can be used to train animals to perform extraordinary behaviors.

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positive reinforcement

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the administration of a stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior's being repeated.

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negative reinforcement

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The removal of a stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior being repeated.

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positive punishment

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the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring.

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negative punishment

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the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring.

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continuous reinforcement

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A type of learning in which behavior is reinforced each time it occurs.

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partial reinforcement

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A type of learning in which behavior is reinforced intermittently

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ratio schedule

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a schedule in which reinforcement is based on the number of times the behavior occurs

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interval schedule

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A schedule in which reinforcement is provided after a specific unit of time

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fixed schedule

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a schedule in which reinforcement is provided after a specific number of occurrence or after a specific amount of time

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variable schedule

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a schedule in which reinforcement is provided at different rates or at different times.

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partial reinforcement extinction effect

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the greater persistence of behavior under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement.

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behavior midification

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the use of operant-conditioning techniques to eliminate unwanted behaviors and replace them with desirable ones.

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cognitive map

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a visual/spatial mental representation of an environment.

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latent learning

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Learning that takes place in the absence of reinforcement.

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meme

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a unit of knowledge transmitted within a culture

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observational learning

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the acquisition or modification of a behavior after exposure to at least one performance of that behavior.

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modeling

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the imitation of behavior through observational learning

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vicarious learning

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Learning the consequences of an action by watching others be rewarded or punished for performing that action

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mirror neurons

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neurons that are activated when one observes another individual engage in an action and when one performs the action that was observed.

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Pleasure centers of the brain

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PFC, nucleus accumbens (w/ dopamine receptors), HT, Amygdala, Medial forebrain bundle.

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Intracranial self stimulation

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rats push lever to stimulate certain parts of the brain with electricity (hundreds of time per hour)

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habituation

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a decrease in behavioral response after repeated exposure to a nonthreatening stimulus.

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sensitization

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An increase in behavioral response after exzposure to a threatening stimulus.

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Long-term potentiation (LTP)

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The strengthening of a synaptic connection, making the postsynaptic neurone more easily activated.

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developmental psychology

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the study of changes, over the life span, in physiology, cognition, emotion and social behavior

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teratogens

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environmental agents that harm the embryo or fetus.

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dynamic systems theory

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The view that development is a self-organizing process, where new forms of behavior emerge through consistent interaction between a biological being and his or her cultural and environmental contexts

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synaptic prunng

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a process whereby the synaptic connections in the brain that are used are preserved, and those that are not used are lost.

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sensitive periods

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time periods when specific skills develop most easily.

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attachment

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A strong emotional connection that persists over time and across circumstances.

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imprinting

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behavior exhibited in birds such as chicken geese and ducks in which, within ~18 hours after hatching the chicks will attach themselves to an adult and then follow the object of their attachment.

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contact comfort

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the importance of physical touch and reassurance.

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secure attachment

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the attachment style for a majority of infants; the infant is confident enough to play in an unfamiliar environment as long as the caregiver is present and is readily comforted by the caregiver during times of distress.

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insecure attachment

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the attachment style for a minority of infants; the infant may exhibit insecure attachment through various behaviors, such as avoiding contact with the caregiver, or by alternating between approach and avoidance behaviors.

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infantile amnesia

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the inability to remember events from early childhood.

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assimilation

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the process by which we place new information into an existing schema

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accomidation

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the process by which we create a new schema or drastically alter an existing schema to include new information that otherwise would not fit into the schema.

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Piaget's stages

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Jean Piaget introduced the idea that cognitive development occurs in stages

Sensorimotor (birth-2 years)
Preoperational (2-7 years)
Concrete operational (7-12 years)
Formal operational (12 years and up)

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sensorimotor stage

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the first stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; during this stage, infants acquire information about the world through their senses and motor skills. Reflexive responses develop into more deliberate actions through the development and refinement of schemas.

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object permanence

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the understanding that an object continues to exist even when it cannot be seen.

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preoperational stage

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the second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; during this stage children think symbolically about objects, but they reason based on intuition and appearance rather than logic.

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concrete operational stage

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The third stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; during this stage, children begin to think about and understand logical operations, and they are no longer fooled by appearances.

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formal operational stage

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the final stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; during this stage, people can think abstractly and thee can formulate and test hypotheses through deductive logic.

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Piaget's marble test

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(1) a 4-year-old is shown two rows of marbles. Each row has the same number of marbles but ne row is spread out.
(2) when asked which row has more marbles, the 4-year-old says the longer row.
This test let Piaget to conclude that very young children do not understand quantity in terms of number, they understand it in terms of length.

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The M&M's version of Piaget's marble test

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(1) a 3-year-old is shown two rows of M&Ms candies. One row has more candies, but has been condensed.
(2) When asked which row she wants to eat, the 3-year-old picks the row with more candies even though it is shorter.
This test enabled Mehler and Bever to show that very young children can in fact understand quantity in terms of number.

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theory of mind

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The term used to describe the ability to explain and predict another person's behavior as a result of recognizing his or her mental state.

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preconditional level

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Earliest level of moral development; at this level, self-interest and even outcomes determine what is moral.

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conventional level

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middle stage of moral development; a this level, strict adherence to societal rules and the approval of others determine what is moral.

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postconventional level

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Highest stage of moral development; at this level, decisions about morality depend on abstract principles and the value of all life.

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telegraphic speech

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the tendency for toddlers to speak using rudimentary sentences that are missing words and grammatical markings but follow a logical syntax and convey a wealth of meaning

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Erikson's eight stages of Human Development

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1. Infancy
2. Toddler
3. Preschool
4. Childhood
5. Adolescence
6. Young adulthood
7. Middle Adulthood
8. Old age

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Infancy

Back 73

AGE: 0-2
MAJOR PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS: trust vs. mistrust
SUCCESSFUL RESOLUTION OF CRISIS: children learn that the world is safe and that people are loving and reliable

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Toddler

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AGE: 2-3
MAJOR PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS: Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt
SUCCESSFUL RESOLUTION OF CRISIS: Encouraged to explore the environment, children gain feelings of independence and positive self-esteem.

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Preschool

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AGE: 4-6
MAJOR PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS: initiative vs. guilt
SUCCESSFUL RESOLUTION OF CRISIS: Children develop a sense of purpose by taking on responsibilities, but also develop the capacity to feel guilty for misdeeds.

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Childhood

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AGE: 7-12
MAJOR PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS: Industry versus inferiority
SUCCESSFUL RESOLUTION OF CRISIS: By working successfully with others and assessing how others view them, children learn to feel competent.

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Adolescence

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AGE: 13-19
MAJOR PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS: Identity versus role confusion
SUCCESSFUL RESOLUTION OF CRISIS: by exploring different social roles, adolescents develop a sense of identity

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Young adulthood

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AGE: 20s
MAJOR PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS: Intimacy vs. Isolation
SUCCESSFUL RESOLUTION OF CRISIS: Young adults gain the ability to commit to long-term relationships

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Middle Adulthood

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AGE: 30s to 50s
MAJOR PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS: Generativity vs. Stagnation
SUCCESSFUL RESOLUTION OF CRISIS: Adults gain a sense that they are leaving behind a positive legacy and caring for future generations

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Old Age

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AGE: 60s and beyond
MAJOR PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS: Integrity versus dispair
SUCCESSFUL RESOLUTION OF CRISIS: Older adults feel a sense of satisfaction that they have lived a good life and developed wisdom.

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Gender identity

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personal beliefs about whether one is male or female.

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gender roles

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The characteristics associated with males and females because of cultural influence and learning.

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gender schemas

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cognitive structures that reflect the perceived appropriateness of male and female characteristics and behaviors.

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Nonverbal behavior

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The facial expressions, gestures, mannerisms, and movements by which one communicates with others. "body language"

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attributions

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People's explanations for why events or actions occur.

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Personal attributions

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Explanations that refer to people's internal characteristics, such as abilities, traits, moods or efforts.

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situational attributions

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Explanations that refer to external events, such as the weather, luck, accidents, or other people's actions.

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fundamental attribution error

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In explaining other people's behavior, the tendency to overemphasize personality and underestimate situational factors.

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self-fulfilling prophecy

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People's tendency to behave in ways that confirm their on expectations or other people's expectations.

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prejudice

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negative feelings, opinions, and beliefs associated with a stereotype.

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discrimination

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the inappropriate and unjustified treatment of a people as a result of prejudice.

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attitudes

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people's evaluations of objects, of events, or of idea.

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Explicit attitudes

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attitudes that a person can report

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implicit attitudes

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attitudes that influence a person's feelings and behavior at an unconscious level.

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cognitive dissodence

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an uncomfortable mental state due to a contradiction between two attitudes or between an attitude and a behavior.

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persuasion

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the active and conscious effort to change an attitude through the transmission of a message

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Justifying Effort

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participants in aversive situations (pledges in hazing) justify their willingness to be there.

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elaboration likelihood model

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a theory of how persuasive messages lead to attitude changes.

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social facilitation

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when the mere presence of others enhances performance

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social loafing

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the tendency for people to work less hard in a group then when working alone.

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deindividuation

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A state of reduced self-awareness, and reduced attention to personal standards; this may occur when people are part of a group.

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conformity

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the altering of one's behaviors and opinions to match those of other people or to match other people's expectations.

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social norms

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Expected standards of conduct, which influence behavior

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compliance

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The tendency to agree to do things requested by others.

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Stanley Milgram

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Milgram's shock experiments demonstrated that average people will obey even hideous orders given by an authority figure.

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aggression

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any behavior that involves the intention to harm someone else.

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frustration-aggression hypothesis

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the extent to which people feel frustrated predicts the likelihood that they will act aggressively.

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cognitive-neoassociationistic model

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proposed by Leonard Berkowitz, this theory states negative emotion leads to aggression because it primes cognitive knowledge associated with aggression.

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prosocial

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tending to benefit others

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altruism

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the providing of help when it is needed, without any apparent reward for doing so.

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bystander intervention effect

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the failure to offer help by those who observe someone in need (also called bystander apathy)

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passionate love

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a state of intense longing and sexual desire

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Compassionate love

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a strong commitment to care for and support a partner.