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193 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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operational definition
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a definition that translates the variable we want to assess into a specific procedure or measurement
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external validity
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the degree to which a study's participants, stimuli, and procedures adequately reflect the world as it actually is (i.e. how children play depends on the circumstances such as on a football field or sitting in church)
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demand characterisitcs
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the cues in a study that might tell a research participant what behaviors are expected or desirable in that setting
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reliability
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the degree of consistency with which a test measures a trait or attribute
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validity
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the extent to which a method or procedure measures what it is supposed to measure
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effect size
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the magnitude of the difference between groups in a study, often computed by subtracting the mean of one group's scores form the mean of the other's scores
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quasi-experiment
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a comparison that relies on already-existing groups (i.e. groups the experimenter did not create)
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internal validity
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the characteristics of a study that allows us to conclude that the manipulation of the independent variable caused the observed change in the dependent variable
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meta-analysis
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a statistical technique for combining the results of many studies on a particular topic, even when the studies used different data collection methods
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empirical claims
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claims that can be true or false depending on the facts
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efferent neurons
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nerves that carry messages outward from the central nervous system
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afferent neurons
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nerves that carry messages inward toward the central nervous system
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glia
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a type of cell in the nervous system long believed to provide a "support" function for neurons; recent research indicates that glia provide many other functions as well
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myelin
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a fatty substance that makes up some types of glial cell; these cells wrap around the axon of some neurons, providing an insulating "myelin sheath" around these neurons
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stimulus intensity and firing rate
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the larger the stimulus the faster the firing rate
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what kind of signals do neurons use to communicate?
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chemical - neurotransmitters
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agonists/ antagonists
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drugs that enhance/impede the activity of neurotransmitters
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blood-brain barrier
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specialized membranes that surround the blood vessels within the brain and filter harmful chemicals out of the brain's blood supply
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transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
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the technique of applying repeated magnetic stimulation at the surface of the skull to temporarily stimulate (low intensity) or disable a target brain region (high intensity)
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electroencephalogram (EEG)
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a record of the brain's electrical activity recorded by placing electrodes on the scalp (records WHEN)
allows for the study of function of certain brain regions therapeutic potential for clinical depression |
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event-related potential (ERP)
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electrical changes in the brain that correspond to the brain's response to a specific event; measured with EEG
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CT(computerized tomography) scan
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a technique for examining brain structure by constructing a composite of X-ray images taken from many different angles
precise info on exact the exact shape and position of structures |
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MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
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a neuroimaging technique that documents the effects of strong magnetic pulses on the molecules that make up brain tissue. A computer then assemble this information into a picture of brain structure. Safer than CT scans.
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PET (positron emission tomography) scan
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a technique for examining brain function by observing the amount of metabolic activity in different brain regions. (injected with a safe dose of radio isotope)
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Functional MRI (fMRI) scanning
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a technique for examining brain function by measuring blood flow and oxygen use within the brain (BOLD signal)
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Somatic nervous system (SNS)
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the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the skeletal muscles and transmits sensory information
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autonomic nervous system (ANS)
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the division of the peripheral nervous system that recieves info from and controls the internal organs
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sympathetic branch (under efferent signal)
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the division of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the organism for physical exertion
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parasympathetic branch (under efferent signal)
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the division of the autonomic nervous system that restores the body's normal resting state and conserves energy
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brain stem
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the brain region at the top of the spinal cord that includes the medulla and the pons
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cerebellum
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the part of the brain that controls muscular coordination and equilibrium
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cerebral cortex
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the outermost layer of the forebrain 80% of the human brain tissue
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cerebral hemisphere
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one-half (left or right) of the cerebrum, the top most part of the brain
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frontal lobe
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the area at the front of each cerebral hemisphere; includes tissue crucial for many aspects of planning and controlling thoughts and behavior
motor cortex (frontal lobe): doing |
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parietal lobe
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the area in each cerebral hemisphere that lies between the frontal and occipital lobes; includes tissue crucial for receiving information from the skin senses
right parietal: action in spatial layouts, whole-body left parietal: precise skilled movements, fine control parietal cortex contains somatosensory cortex |
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temporal lobe
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the area in each cerebral hemisphere that lying below the temples; includes tissue crucial for hearing and many aspects of language use
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occipital lobe
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the rearmost area of each cerebral hemisphere; includes tissue crucial for processing visual information
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lateral fission
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between frontal/ parietal lobes and temporal/occipital lobes
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central fission
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between frontal love and parietal lobe
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hypothalamus
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a subcortical structure that plays a vital role in controlling many motivated behaviors, like eating, drinking, and sexual activity
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limbic system
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a group of interconnected structures (including the hypothalamus, the amygdala, and others) that are crucial for emotion, motivation, and many aspects of learning and memory
thalamus: sensory relay station: inputsthalamus-cortex hypothalamus: internal regulation, like medulla amygdala: emotion |
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amygdala
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an almond-shaped, temporal love structure that plays a central role in emotion and evaluating stimuli
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hippocampus
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a temporal love structure that plays a pivotal role in learning and forming new memories
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lateralization
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functional differences between the two cerebral hemispheres. e.g. in most right-handers, the left hemisphere is specialized for language, while the right hemisphere is better at some visual and spatial tasks.
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corpus cllosum
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the thick bundle of fibers connecting the cerebral hemispheres; bundles of fiber carrying info back and forth between the hemispheres
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projection areas
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areas in which the brain tissue seems to form a "map" of sensory information; info arriving from the sense organs primarily vision, hearing, and skin info; primary somatosensory projection area is directly behind the primary motor projection area in the parietal lobe
1: specificity; 2: it’s a “map”; 3: proportional representation |
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contralateral control
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the typical patern in vertebrates in which movements of the right side of the body are controlled by the left hemisphere, while movements of the left side are controlled by the right hemisphere
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apraxia
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a serious disturbance in beginning or carrying out voluntary movements resulting from lesions in the cortex of the frontal lobe
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visual agnosia
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the ability to recognize a visual stimulus despite the ability to see and describe it from the damage of the occipital cortex or rearmost part of the parietal cortex. for example a patient shown a fork might describe it as "points on top of a stick" and not be able to name it until she touches it
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neglect syndrome
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the result of certain right parietal lobe lesions that leave a patient completely inattentive to stimuli to her left, including the left side of her own body
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Broca's area
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production of speech
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Wernicke's area
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speech comprehenshion
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prefrontal area
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the frontmost portion of the frontal lobes, involved in working memory, strategy formation, and response inhibition (involved in planning)
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executive control
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processes such as making plans or overriding habitual responses that let the brain direct its own cognitive activities
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perseveration
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the tendency to repeat a response inappropriately; often result of deficits in executive control caused by prefrontal lesions ie copying something with out a plan
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brain plasticity
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the capacity for the brain to alter its structure
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depressants
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xanax, alcohol, sleeping pills
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stimulants
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caffeine, MDMA (ecstasy), ADHD, cocaine, amphetamine
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hallucinogens
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LSD "acid", PCP "angel dust", marijuana
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distal stimulus
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an object or event in the outside world
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proximal stimulus
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the energies from the outside world that directly reach out sense organs
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psychophysics
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an approach to perception that relates the characteristics of physical stimuli to the sensory experiences they produce
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Weber's law
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the observation that the size of the difference threshold is proportional to the intensity of the standard stimulus
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Fechner's law
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the observation that the strength of a sensation is proportional to the logarithm of physical stimulus intensity
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perceptual sensitivity
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an organism's ability to detect a signal
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decision criteria
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an organism's rule for how much evidence it needs before responding
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signal-detection theory
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the theory that perceiving or not perceiving a stimulus is actually a judgment about whether a momentary sensory experience is due to background noise alone or to the background noise plus a signal
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transduction
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the process through which a physical stimulus is converted into a signal within the nervous system
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sensory coding
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the process through which the nervous system represents the qualities of the incoming stimulus - whether auditory or visual
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specificity theory
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the proposal that different sensory qualities are signaled by different quality-specific neurons. This theory is correct for only a few cases (e.g. pain)
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pattern theory
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the proposal that different sensory qualities are encoded by specific patterns of firing among the relevant neurons
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sensory adaptation
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the process by which the sensitivity to a stimulus declines if the stimulus is presented for an extended period of time. Garlic smell is strong when you walk into a restaurant but become unnoticeable after a period of time.
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kinesthesis
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the sensations generated by receptors in the muscles, tendons, and joints that inform us of our skeletal movement
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vestibular senses
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the sensations generated by receptors in the semicicular canals of the inner ear that inform us about the head's orientation and movements
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nociceptors
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receptors in the skin that give rise to the sense of pain; they respond to various forms of tissue damage and to temperature extremes
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gate control theory
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the proposal that pain sensations must pass through a neural "gate" in order to reach the brain and can be blocked at the gate by neurons that inhibit signals from the noniceptors
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olfactory epithelium
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a mucus membrane at the top of the nasal cavity; contains the olfactory receptor neurons that respond to airborne molecules called odorants
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glomeruli
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sites in the brain's olfactory bulb where signals from the smell receptors converge
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phermonres
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biologically produced odorants that convey information to other members of the species
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papillae
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structures on the tongue that contain the taste buds, which in turn contain taste receptors (5 types)
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cochlea
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the coiled structure in the inner ear that contains the basilar membrane
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eardrum
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the taut membrane that transmits the vibrations caused by sound waves from the auditory canal to the ossicles in the middle ear
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oval window
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the membrane separating the middle ear form the inner ear; the higher the frequency the closer to the oval window is the sound in the cochlea
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auditory ossicles
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the three bones of the middle ear that transmit the vibrations of the eardrum to the oval window
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basilar membrane
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a membrane running the length of the cochlea; sound waves cause a deformation of this membrane, bending the hair cells in the cochlea and thus stimulating the auditory receptors
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hair cells
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the auditory receptors in the cochlea, lodged between the basilar membrane and other membranes above
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place theory
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a proposal about pitch perception stating that regions of the basilar membrane respond to particular sound frequencies, and the nervous system interprets the excitation from different basilar regions as different pitches
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timbre
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the quality of a sound apart from its pitch and loudness; timbre enables us to distinguish a clarinet from an oboe, or on person's voice from another
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photoreceptor
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located on the retina
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retinal image
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image of an object that is projected on the retina. it's size increase with the size of that object and decreases with the object's distance from the eye
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rods
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photoreceptors in the retina that respond to lower light intensities and give rise to achromatic (colorless) sensations
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cones
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visual receptors that respond to greater light intensities and give rise to chromatic (color) sensations
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fovea
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the area roughly at the retina's center where cones are plentiful and visual acuity is greatest
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optic nerve
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the bundle of fibers that proceeds from each retina to the brain
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photopigment
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a chemical in the photoreceptors that changes its form in response to light, producing an electrical change that signals to the nervous system that light is present
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lateral inhibition
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the pattern of interaction among neurons in the visual system in which activity in one neuron inhibits adjacent neuron's responses
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opponent-process theory
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output of the cones serves as input for a further layer of mechanisms that recode the signal 3 opoenent process pairs; a theory of color vision that proposes three pairs of color antagonists: red-green, blue-yellow, and white-black. Excitation of neurons sensitive to one member of a pair automatically inhibits neurons sensitive to the other member
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respective field
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for a particular cell in the visual system, the pattern of retinal stimulation that most effectively causes the cell to fire, for some cells. this pattern is defines simply in terms of a retinal location; for others, the most effective input has a particular shape, color, or direction of motion
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feature detectors
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neurons in the retina or brain respond to specific attributes of the stimulus, such as movement, orientation, and so on
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sensory codes
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the rules by which the nervous system translates the properties of the proximal stimulus into neural impluses. Psychological intensity is usually coded by the rates of firing by the neurons and by the sheer number of neurons triggered by the stimulus
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gestalt psychology
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a theoretical approach that emphasizes the role of organized wholes in perception and other psychological processes
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feature net
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a model of pattern recognition involving a network of detectors and having feature detectors as the net-work's starting point
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geons (geometric ions)
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simple geometric figures, such as cubes, cylinders, and pyramids, that can be combined to create all other shapes. An early (and crucial) step in some models of object recognition is determining which geons are present
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smaller parvo cells
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ganglion cells that, because of their sensitivity to differences in hue, are particularly suited to perceiving color and form; blanket entire retina; outnumber magno cells
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larger magno cells
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ganglion cells that, because of their sensitivity to brightness changes, are particularly suited for prerceiving motion and depth; found in retina periphery
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"what" system
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the visual pathway leading from the visual cortex to the temporal lobe; especially involved in identifying objects
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"where" system
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the visual pathway leading from the visual cortex to the parietal lobe; especially involved in locating objects in space and coordinating movements
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binding problem
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the problem confronted by the brain of recombining the elements of a stimulus, given the fact that these elements are initially analyzed separately by different neural systems
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perceptual constancy
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the accurate perception of certain attributes of a distal object, such as its shape, size, and brightness, despite changes in the proximal stimulus caused by variantions in our viewing circumstances
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unconscious inference
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a process postulated bby Hermann von Helmholtz to explain certain perceptual phenomena such as size constancy. For example, an object is perceived to be at a certain distance and this is unconsciously taken into account in assessing its retinal image size, with the result that size constancy is maintained
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binocular disparity
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a depth cue based on the differences between the two eyes' views of the world. This difference becomes less pronounced the farther an object is from the observer.
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monocular depth cues
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features of the visual stimulus that indicate distance even if the stimulus is viewed with only one eye.
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Pictorial cues
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pattern that can be represented on a flat surface in order to create a sense of a three-dimensional object or scene
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interposition
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a monocular cue to distance that relies on the fact that objects farther away are blocked from view by closer objects
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linear perspective
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a cue for distance based on the fact that parallel lines seem to converge as they get farther away from the viewer
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motion parallax
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a depth cue based on the fact that, as an observer moves, the retinal images of nearby objects move more rapidly than do the retinal images of objects farther away
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motion detectors
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cells in the visual cortex that are sensitive to an image moving in a particular direction across the retina
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apparent movement
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the perception of movement produced by stimuli that are stationary but are presented first at one positions and then, at an appropriate time interval, presented at a different position
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induced motion
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perceived movement of a stationary stimulus, usually caused by movement of a surrounding framework or nearby objects
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correspondence problem
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as your view changes, the perceptual task of determining which aspect of the current view correspond to which aspects of the view seen a moment ago
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habituation
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a decline in the response to a stimulus once the stimulus has become familiar
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dishabituation
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an increase in responsiveness when something novel is presented, following a series of presentations of something familiar
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classical conditioning
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a form of learning in which one stimulus is paired with another so that the organism learns a relationship between the stimuli
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second-order conditioning
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a form of learning in which a neutral stimulus is first made meaningful through classical conditioning. then, that stimulus (The CS) is paired with a new, neutral stimulus until the new stimulus also elicits the conditioned response
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extinction
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the weakening of a learned response that is produced if a conditioned stimulus is now repeatedly presented without unconditioned stimulus
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spontaneous recovery
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the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period in which no further conditioning trials have been presented
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stimulus generalization
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the tendency for stimuli similar to those used during learning to elicit a reaction similar to the learned response
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discrimination
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an aspect of learning in which the organism learns to respond differently to stimuli that have been associated with a US (or reinforcement), and stimuli that have not
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inhibitor
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a stimulus signaling that an event is not coming, which elicits a response opposite to the one that the event usually elicits
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blocking effect
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a result showing that an animal learns nothing about a stimulus if the stimulus provides no new information
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compensatory response
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a response that offsets the effects of the upcoming unconditional stimulus; ie preparation of the body by a heroin user to keep homeostasis
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instrumental conditioning
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a form of learning in which the participant receives a reinforcer only after performing the desired response, and thereby learns a relationship between the response and the reinforcer
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law of effect
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Thorndike's theory that a response followed by a reward will be strengthened, whereas a response followed by no reward (or by punishment) will be weakened
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operant
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In Skinner's system, an instrumental response that is defined by it's effect (the way it operates) on the environment
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reinforcer
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a stimulus delivered after a response that makes the response more likely in the future
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shaping
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the process of eliciting a desired response by rewarding behaviors that are increasingly similar to that response
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behavioral contrast
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a response pattern in which an organism evaluates a reward relative to other available rewards or those that have been available recently
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partial reinforcement
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a learning condition in which only some of the organism's responses are reinforced
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schedule of reinforcement
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the rules about how often and under what conditions a response will be reinforced
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ratio schedule
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a pattern of delivering reinforcements only after a certain number of responses
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interval schedule
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a pattern of delivering reinforcements only after a certain amount of time has passed
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latent learning
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learning that occurs without a corresponding change in behavior
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learned helplessness
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a condition of passivity apparently created by exposure to inescapable aversive events. This condition inhibits or prevents learning in later situations in which escape or avoidance is possible
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observational learning
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the process of watching how others behave and learning from their example; observational learning can have a powerful effect on aggression
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vicarious conditioning
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a form of learning in which the learner acquires a conditioned response merely by observing another participant being conditioned
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mirror neurons
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neurons that fire whenever an animal performs an action, such as stretching out its arm or reaching toward a target, and also whenever the animal watches another performing the same action
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prepared learning
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learning that occurs without extensive training becuase of an evolved predisposition to the behavior; humans seem prepared to associate averisve outcomes with the sight of snakes
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long-term potentiation (LTP)
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a long-lasting increase in a neuron's response to specific inputs, caused by repeated stimulation
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recall
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a type of retrieval that requires you to produce an item from memory in response to a cue or question
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recognition
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a type of retrieval that requires you to judge whether you have encountered a stimulus perviously
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acquisition
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the processes of gaining new information and placing it in memory
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intentional learning
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placing new information into memory in anticipation of being tested on it later
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incidental learning
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learning without trying to learn, and often without awareness that learning is occuring
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primacy effect
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in free recall, the tendency to recall the first items on the list more readily than those in the middle; enhanced by slow presentation
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recency effect
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in free recall, the tendency to recall items at the end of the list more readily than those in the middle (based on retrieval in working memory)
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working memory
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retreival form perirhinal cortex
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long-term memory
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retrieval from hippocampus
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chunking
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a process of reorganizing (or recoding) materials in working memory by combining a number of items into a single, larger unit
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maintenance rehearsal
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mechanical repetition of material without thinking about its meaning or patterns i.e. repeating a phone number long enough to dial it
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shallow processing
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an approach to memorization that involves focusing on the superficial characteristics of the stimulus, such as the sound of a word or the typeface in which it's printed
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deep processing
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an approach to memorization that involves focusing on the meaning of the stimulus
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memonics
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deliberate techniques people use to memorize new materials
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memory consolidation
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the biological process through which memories are transformed from a transient and fragile status to a more permanent and robust state; according to most researchers, consolidation occurs over the course of several hours
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retrograde amnesia
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a memory deficit, often suffered after a head injury, in which the patient loses memory for events that occurred before the injury or disease
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retrieval
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process of searching for a memory and finding it
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tip of the tongue (TOT) effect
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the condition in which one remains on the verge of retrieving a word or name but continues to be unsuccessful
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anterograde amnesia
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a memory deficit suffered after some kinds of brain damage, in which the patient seems unable to form new explicit memories; however, memories acquired before the injury are spared
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retrieval cue
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a hint or signal that helps one to recall a memory
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retrieval paths
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the mental connections linking one idea to the next that people use to locate a bit of information in memory
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context reinstatement
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a way of improving retrieval by re-creating the state of mind that accompanied the initial learning; information is best recalled in the environment where it is learned ie divers who learned underwater recalled more words underwater
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encoding specificity
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the hypothesis that when information is stored in memory it is not recorded in its original form but translated ("encoded") into a form that includes the thoughts and understanding of the learner
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retention interval
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the time that elapses between the learning and retrieval; recall decreases, and forgetting increases, as the retention interval grows longer and longer
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forgetting curve
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as the retention interval gets longer memory decreases
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intrusion errors
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memory mistakes in which elements that were not part of the original information get mixed into someone's recall
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misinformation effect
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the result of a procedure in which, after an experience, people are exposed to questions or suggestions that misrepresent what happened. The term refers to people's tendency to include the misinformation as part of their recall of the original experience
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schema
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an individual's mental representation that summarizes her knowledge about a certain type of event or situation
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DRM paradigm
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a common procedure for studying memory, in which participants read and then immediately recall a list of related words, but the word providing the "theme" for the list is not included
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famliarity
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a general sense that a certain stimulus has been encountered before; activates rhina cortex
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recollection
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recall of the context in which a certain stimulus was encountered; activates the hippocampus
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explicit memory
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episodic and semantic memory
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implicit memory
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procedural memory, priming, perceptual learning, classical conditioning
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systematic desensitizing
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Conditioning can be used to take away phobias;. First you relax the person and after just use the phobia passingly in conversation while they’re still relaxed. Then they ramp up the amount they show the snake until you bring one in.You can condition allergic reactions to things.
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Perception: pathway of stimulus
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From eyes to optic nerve to optic chiasm then to lateral geniculate nucleus (part of thalamus)then to the left or right visual cortex; When cats are raised in an environment with horizontal striped they don’t have any cells that prefer vertical lines and vice versa.
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LGN(lateral geniculate nucleus)
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has 6 layers
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Ocular dominance column
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certain cells respond more to either the left or right eye
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Dorsal pathway
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goes up to your parietal cortex-goes above the brain; If you remove part of the parietal lobe-they couldn’t do the distance task
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Ventral pathway
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like stomach; She couldn’t keep the card at the same angle as the slot but she could put the card in the slot(temporal lobe ventral)
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hippocampus
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You can develop skills without a hippocampus. You won’t remember having done it before but you can still do it;
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Flashbulb memories
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intuition that when we have a dramatic experience in our lives, the memory is burned into our memories that are different than the normal memory. What’s going on when we make these particular memories. People’s memories were equally as accurate on September 9,10 and 11th when you’re close to the date vs asking a few weeks after.
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Stroop effect
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Interference -> saying the color of words of colors,
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Odors
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have a more direct connection to the brain and the hippocampus
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Compatibility principles
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situation at encoding contains cues that help retrieval
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dopamine
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(a neurotransmitter) Parkinson’s: not enough dopamine released rats: wanting vs liking. No dopamine: don’t want food
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