Psya1 - Research Methods

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Experiment method - definition

Back 1

This aims to assess a cause and effect relationship, and involves the researcher directly manipulating an independent variable

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Laboratory experiment - definition

Back 2

Researcher manipulates an independent variable in a controlled laboratory situation

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Laboratory experiment - advantages

Back 3

Researcher has a high degree of control over the variables.

Researchers can easily replicate studies conducted by other researchers.

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Laboratory experiment - disadvantages

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Can be artificial and different from real-life situations.

Participants may suffer from demand characteristics; adjust their behaviour to match their interpretation of the research.

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Field experiment - definition

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Researcher manipulates an independent variable in a controlled but "real" situation.

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Field experiment - advantages

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Higher levels of ecological validity than a laboratory setting.

Lower risk of demand characteristics; participants "less aware" of taking part , therefore behave more naturally

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Field experiment - disadvantages

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Replication is more difficult and results can't be generalised to all real-life situations.

It is more difficult to establish precise control over confounding variables

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Natural experiment - definition

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Researcher does not manipulate an independent variable but takes advantage of a "naturally occuring" one

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Natural experiment - advantages

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Can be used to exploit a naturally occuring which it would be unethical to replicate.

The researcher does not intervene directly in the situation and so realism may be higher.

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Natural experiment - disadvantages

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The naturally occuring behaviour being investigated may occur rarely.

Possibly confounding variables are not being controlled by the investigator.

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Independent variable - definition

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This is what the researcher manipulates.

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Dependent variable - defintion

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This is what the researcher measures that occurs as a result of the independent variable being manipulated.

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Extraneous variable - defintion

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This is anything apart from the independent variable that affects the dependent variable.

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Correlational Study - definition

Back 14

This when a researcher examines the relationship between two co-variables.

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Correlational Study - advantages

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A powerful exploratory research tool which can be used when experiments are inappropriate e.g. stress and illness.

Provides valuable information on the strength of the relationship between the co-variables.

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Corelational Study - disavantages

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Cannot assess non-linear relationships.

Impossible to establish cause and effect between variables.

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Observations - Definition

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Researcher records behaviours being exhibited by participants.

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Observations - advantages

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Can be used when experimentation is inappropriate e.g. funerals.

Is recording actual behaviour, so results are likely to be valid.

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Observations - disadvantages

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Replication may be difficult due to differences in naturalistic settings.

The presence of an observer may change behaviour of those being observed.

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Questionnaires - definition

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Researcher prepares questions and asks participant to give a written response

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Questionnaires - advantages

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Can be used to assess psychological variables that may not be obvious by just observing someone.

Data can be collected from a large group of participants more quickly than interviewing them

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Questionnaires - disadvantages

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There is no guarantee that the participant is telling the truth.

Different participants may interpret the same questions in different ways.

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Interviews - definition

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Researcher prepares questions and asks participant to give a verbal response

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Interviews - advantages

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Can permit issues to be investigated with sensitivity.

Participants can ask for clarification of a question if they are unsure of its meaning.

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Interviews - disadvantages

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Tends to be more time consuming to complete than questionnaires.

The appearance (e.g. ethnicity, gender etc.) of the researcher may have an effect on participant's response.

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Closed questions - defintion

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Questions where the respondent has a limited response.

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Closed questions - advantage and disadvantage

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Produce quantitative date which is easy to analyse.

Participants may not feel they have the opportunity to respond fully.

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Open questions - defintion

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These questions allow the respondent to freely offer their opinion.

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Open questions - advantage and disadvantage

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Participant may offer information that the researcher may not have considered.

Produces qualitative data which can be tricky to analyse.

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Case Study - definition

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An in-depth exploration of the behaviour and experiences of an individual, who is usually unique.

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Case Study - advantages

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Can collect data from individuals who have experienced situations which it would be unethical to manipulate.

Can be a good way to describe changes occurring as a result of psychological processes which occur over time.

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Case Study - Disadvantages

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Researcher's assessment may become less objective with familiarity.

"Unique" experiences of one person may have little/no application to the lives of others.

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Aim - definition

Back 33

A general idea that psychologists want to investigate when carrying out a study.

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Hypothesis - defintion

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A clear statement about what your research intends to prove or disprove, usually based on previous research.

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Directional Hypothesis - defintion and example

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These predict the direction in which the results are expected to go. e.g. "studying improves marks", "women are better drivers than men"

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Non-directional Hypothesis - defintion and example

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When a hypothesis might not state a direction but simply says that one factor affects another, or that there will be a correlation between two variables. e.g. "anxiety influences performance", "there is a significant difference in the driving abilities of men and women"

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Independent Groups - explanation

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A design involving using different participants randomly allocated to each condition.

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Independent Groups - advantages

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No order effects as participants only take part in one condition.

Less chance of demand characteristics as participants only take part in one condition.

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Independent Groups - disadvantages

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Needs twice as many participants as repeated measures design.

There may be unknown intergroup differences that are responsible for an difference in the dependent variables.

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Repeated Measures - explanation

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This design involves using the same participants in each condition of an experiment.

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Repeated Measures - advantages

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Needs fewer participants than independent groups or matched pairs designs.

There is no chance of intergroup differences as all participants take part in all conditions.

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Repeated Measures - disadvantages

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Order effects may occur and demand characteristics are more likely.

Some research cannot use repeated measures e.g. independent variables that can't be randomly allocated

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Matched Pairs - explanation

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This design involves using different but similar participants in each condition.

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Matched Pairs - advantages

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No order effects as participants only take part in one condition.

Less chance of demand characteristics as participants only take part in one condition.

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Matched Pairs - disadvantages

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It takes time and research to match participants.

Even with our best matching there could still be an uncontrolled intergroup difference that is responsible for any difference in the dependent variable.

Front 46

Random Sampling - definition and method

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A sample of the target population where no one has a greater chance of being chosen than any other. Could be done by "pulling names out of a hat" or "drawing straws".

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Random Sampling - advantages and disadvantages

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Potentially unbiased as everyone in the target population has equal chance of being selected; the researcher doesn't intervene.

The selected sample could be biased e.g. more of one sub-group than another.

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Opportunity Sampling - definition and method

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When those who are easily available are selected. Students are often chosen by their tutors to take part in studies as it is more convenient.

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Opportunity Sampling - advantage and disadvantage

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As you are using people the easiest find, the sample tends to be quicker to locate than using other sampling techniques.

Sample is likely to be biased e.g. cliques are unlikely to be representative.

Front 50

BPS Code of Ethics - description

Back 50

A code of ethics set out by the governing body necessary to "clarify the conditions under which psychological research can take place".

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Ethical Issue - definition

Back 51

When the code of ethics is not followed and issues are raised about confidentiality, deception etc.

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Confidentiality - definition of issue and way of dealing with it

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When the researcher allows details of the participants' performance to become apparent. The researcher should employ techniques to maintain the confidentiality of the participants, such as use of pseudonym or participant numbers.

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Observation - definition of issue and way of dealing with it

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When the participant is unaware that they are being observed, and don't expect it. The researcher should make the participant aware that they are being observed.

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Withdrawl - definition of issue and way of dealing with it

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When a researcher doesn't tell the participant that they can withdraw from the experiment or prevents the participant from doing so. The researcher should inform the participant of the right to withdraw before commencing the research and in no way hinder them if they decide to leave the research before the end.

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Deception - definition of issue and way of dealing with it

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When the researcher intentionally tells the participant a false aim and/or procedures of the research. Researcher should inform participants of the true aim and/or procedures of the research and after the research is concluded and give participants the opportunity to withdraw data.

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Informed Consent- definition of issue and way of dealing with it

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Researcher does not tell the participants the true aim and/or procedures of the research. Researcher should inform participants of the true aim and/or procedures of the research to ensure fully informed consent.

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Protection from physical harm - definition of issue and way of dealing with it

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When the researcher fails to protect the participant from physical harm. Researchers should make sure that any equipment used in the procedure is safe to use and that the participant is in no greater risk than posed by their everyday life.

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Protection from psychological harm - definition of issue and way of dealing with it

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When the researcher fails to protect the participant from psychological harm. Researchers should make sure the procedure will not create any opportunity for the participant to feel negatively about themselves or their performance and, if it does, they should be able to give advice and support.

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Reliability - defintion

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Reliability refers to the consistency of something.

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Internal relaibility - defintion

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This refers to whether a test is consistently measuring whatever it is supposed to be measuring.

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External reliability - definition

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This refers to whether the findings of research are found to be similar over time.

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Validity - definition

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This refers to whether a measuring instrument measures what it is supposed to.

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Internal validity - definition

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This is when research or findings have shown that what it has measured are due to the factors being assessed e.g. intelligence test measures intelligence (rather than educational level)

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External validity - definition

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When findings can be generalised to other people or situations than the research situation.

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Demand Characteristics - definition

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All the cues which convey to the participant the purpose of the study which may cause them to behave in a way that they would not ordinarily done.

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Investigator Effects - definition

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When the researcher conveys to the participant (even unconsciously) how they should behave. The cues may be very subtle and the researcher may be totally unaware of their influence.

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Pilot Study - definition

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A small scale version of the research of the research that acts as a "dress rehearsal" for the real research. It allows the researcher to check that all components of the research work as they are supposed to, and if they don't changes can be made. This can decide if the researcher is going to use a directional/non-directional hypothesis.

Front 68

MOCT - Mean - defintion

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Measure of central tendency which is the result of the total of all scores divided by the number of participants.

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MOCT - Mean - advantage and disadvantage

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All scores are taken into account.

May be effected by an outlying or anomalous result.

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MOCT - Median - definition

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Measure of central tendency which is the middle value after all the scores being put in rank order.

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MOCT - Median - advantage and disadvantage

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Is not affected by an anomalous result.

Not all of the scores are taken into account.

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MOCT - Mode - definition

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Measure of central tendency which is the result that is most frequently occurring.

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MOCT - Mode - advantage and disadvantage

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The score is definitely one that occurred in the data set.

There may not be one, there could be multiple.

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Range - definition

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Measure of dispersion that is the difference between the highest and lowest score in a data set.

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Range - advantage and disadvantage

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Shows us just how varied participants' performances are.

A very crude measure of dispersion.

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Standard Deviation - definition

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Measure of dispersion that assesses how varied a score from the mean.

Front 77

Standard Deviation - advantage and disadvantage

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A much more precise measure than the range.

May hide some characteristics of a data set e.g. extreme scores.

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Positive correlation - definition

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When as one co-variable increases, so does the other.

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Negative correlation - definition

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When one co-variable increases in value, the other decreases.

Front 80

Correlation coefficient - definition

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The degree of association between two sets of variables by using a statistic.

Front 81

Bar chart - definition

Back 81

Graph which shows the frequency of category data.

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Bar chart - advantage and disadvantage

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Clear visual representation of categories of data.

You cannot determine if any noted differences are significant or not from a bar chart.

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Histogram/Line Graph - definition

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Graphs which show the frequency of continuous data.

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Histogram/Line Graph - advantage and disadvantage

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Clear visual representation of continuous data.

You cannot determine if any noted differences are significant or not.

Front 85

Scattergram - definition

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A graph which shows the relationship between two co-variables.

Front 86

Scattergram - advantage and disadvantage

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Indicates both the strength and nature of the relationship.

Cannot determine if any noted differences are significant or not.

Front 87

Qualitative Data - definition

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Qualitative data is research information obtained from the participants that is not in numerical form.

Front 88

Content Analysis - definition

Back 88

A quantitative analysis of information people have produced, by firstly identifying and designing categories and then counting the number of times that each category occurs throughout the material.

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Content Analysis - advantage and disadvantage

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It is a research method that is inexpensive, un-obtrusive and readily-understood.

It can be interpreted differently by different researchers.

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Content Analysis - processes involved in...

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1. Create a coding system of predetermined categories at the outset of the study
2. Undertake a pilot study.
3. Assign specific elements of the material to be analysed to a specific category and count how many incidences there are in each category
4. Analyse the data using a tally system to record the number of incidences of each category.

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Volunteer Sample - Definition and method

Back 91

When participants take part in a study because they volunteer when asked or in response to an advert (like in Milgram's study).

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Volunteer Sample - advantage and disadvantage

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This sampling method is very quick and easy to do.

The type of people who volunteer may not be representative of the target population for a number of reasons e.g. they may be more obedient, more motivated to take part in studies etc.

Front 93

Behavioural categories - definition

Back 93

Behaviours that may be observed during research e.g. smiling, laughing, crying, shouting.

Front 94

Operationalisation - definition

Back 94

The way a hypothesis/test/results are measured.